{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,22]],"date-time":"2026-03-22T03:40:08Z","timestamp":1774150808640,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]],"date-time":"2020-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aims of this study were to analyze the usefulness of raw bioelectrical impedance (BI) parameters in assessing water compartments and fluid distribution in athletes. A total of 202 men and 71 female athletes were analyzed. Total body water (TBW) and extracellular water (ECW) were determined by dilution techniques, while intracellular water (ICW) was calculated. Fluid distribution was calculated as the ECW\/ICW ratio (E:I). Phase angle (PhA), resistance (R) and reactance (Xc) were obtained through BI spectroscopy using frequency 50kHz. Fat (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. After adjusting for height, FM, FFM, age and sports category we observed that: PhA predicted ICW (females: \u03b2 = 1.62, p &lt; 0.01; males: \u03b2 = 2.70, p &lt; 0.01) and E:I (males and females: \u03b2 = \u22120.08; p &lt; 0.01); R explained TBW (females: \u03b2 = \u22120.03; p &lt; 0.01; males: \u03b2 = \u22120.06; p &lt; 0.01) and ECW (females: \u03b2 = \u20130.02, p &lt; 0.01; males: \u03b2 = \u22120.03, p &lt; 0.01) and ICW (females: \u03b2 = \u20130.01, p &lt; 0.053; males: \u03b2 = \u20130.03 p &lt; 0.01); and Xc predicted ECW (females: \u03b2 = \u22120.06, p &lt; 0.01; males: \u03b2 = \u22120.12, p &lt; 0.01). A higher PhA is a good predictor of a larger ICW pool and a lower E:I, regardless of body composition, age, height, and sports category. Lower R is associated with higher water pools whereas ECW expansion is explained by lower Xc. Raw BI parameters are useful predictors of total and extracellular pools, cellular hydration and fluid distribution in athletes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030759","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]],"date-time":"2020-01-24T11:01:00Z","timestamp":1579863660000},"page":"759","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["The Predictive Role of Raw Bioelectrical Impedance Parameters in Water Compartments and Fluid Distribution Assessed by Dilution Techniques in Athletes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6413-5268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruben","family":"Francisco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Catarina N.","family":"Matias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Diana A.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3028-7802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Campa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40121 Bologna, Italy"},{"name":"Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy"}]},{"given":"Claudia S.","family":"Minderico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Paulo","family":"Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Steven B.","family":"Heymsfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennington Biomedical Research Foundation, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, LO 70808, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5418-5851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henry","family":"Lukaski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kinesiology and Public Health Education, Hyslop Sports Center, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}]},{"given":"Lu\u00eds B.","family":"Sardinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8984-8600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Analiza M.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0676","article-title":"Stabilizing Bioimpedance-vector-analysis measures with a 10-minute cold shower after running exercise to enable assessment of body hydration","volume":"14","author":"Campa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1255115","article-title":"Body composition and power changes in elite judo athletes","volume":"31","author":"Silva","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2488","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e3181fb3dfb","article-title":"Relationship between changes in total-body water and fluid distribution with maximal forearm strength in elite judo athletes","volume":"25","author":"Silva","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Identifying athlete body-fluid changes during a competitive season with bioelectrical impedance vector analysis","volume":"11","author":"Campa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports. Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2015.1058198","article-title":"Suitability of bioelectrical based methods to assess water compartments in recreational and elite athletes","volume":"35","author":"Matias","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1684\/mrh.2015.0389","article-title":"Magnesium and phase angle: a prognostic tool for monitoring cellular integrity in judo athletes","volume":"28","author":"Matias","year":"2015","journal-title":"Magnes. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1055\/a-0574-3166","article-title":"Changes in phase angle and handgrip strength induced by suspension training in older women","volume":"39","author":"Campa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2004.06.004","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis\u2014part I: Review of principles and methods","volume":"23","author":"Kyle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2004.09.012","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis-part II: Utilization in clinical practice","volume":"23","author":"Kyle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0159-1","article-title":"Phase angle and mortality: A systematic review","volume":"73","author":"Garlini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.116772","article-title":"Phase angle and its determinants in healthy subjects: influence of body composition","volume":"103","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/34\/2\/237","article-title":"Localized bioimpedance to assess muscle injury","volume":"34","author":"Nescolarde","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(99)00230-0","article-title":"Altered tissue electric properties in lung cancer patients as detected by bioelectric impedance vector analysis","volume":"16","author":"Toso","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1080\/01635581.2018.1557216","article-title":"Low phase angle is correlated with worse general condition in patients with advanced cancer","volume":"71","author":"Miura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, S.H., Choi, E.W., Park, J.W., Cho, K.H., and Do, J.Y. (2016). Clinical significance of the edema index in incident peritoneal dialysis patients. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147070"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2015.07.086","article-title":"Edema index measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis as a predictor of fluid reduction needed to remove clinical congestion in acute heart failure","volume":"201","author":"Yamazoe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marini, E., Campa, F., Buffa, R., Stagi, S., Matias, C.N., Toselli, S., Sardinha, L.B., and Silva, A.M. (2019). Phase angle and bioelectrical impedance vector analysis in the evaluation of body composition in athletes. Clin. Nutr.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.02.016"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Tanner, J. (1962). The development of the reproductive system. Growth at adolescence, 28\u201339."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1249\/00003677-198600140-00014","article-title":"Applicability of body composition techniques and constants for children and youths","volume":"14","author":"Lohman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CSMR.0000306194.67241.76","article-title":"American college of sports medicine roundtable on hydration and physical activity: Consensus statements","volume":"4","author":"Casa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Sports Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e31827361eb","article-title":"Total energy expenditure assessment in elite junior basketball players: A validation study using doubly labeled water","volume":"27","author":"Silva","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1992","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00109a014","article-title":"High-precision determination of 2H\/1H in H2 and H2O by continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry","volume":"67","author":"Prosser","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.2702","article-title":"Validity of extracellular water assessment with saliva samples using plasma as the reference biological fluid","volume":"26","author":"Matias","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomed. Chromatogr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campa, F., Matias, C., Gatterer, H., Toselli, S., Koury, J.C., Andreoli, A., Melchiorri, G., Sardinha, L.B., and Silva, A.M. (2019). Classic bioelectrical impedance vector reference values for assessing body composition in male and female athletes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16245066"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0355-z","article-title":"Lack of agreement of in vivo raw bioimpedance measurements obtained from two single and multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance devices","volume":"73","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0321-9","article-title":"Structural and functional body components in athletic health and performance phenotypes","volume":"73","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin.Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Liedtke, R.J. (1997). Principles of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis, RJL Systems Inc."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"211","article-title":"Malnutrition and the severity of lung disease in adults with pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi","volume":"8","author":"Kumwenda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1996.535","article-title":"Nutritional and prognostic correlates of bioimpedance indexes in hemodialysis patients","volume":"50","author":"Maggiore","year":"1996","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1123\/japa.2017-0258","article-title":"Effects of single set resistance training with different frequencies on a cellular health indicator in older women","volume":"26","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Aging Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0039","article-title":"Bioimpedance vector analysis of elite, subelite, and low-level male volleyball players","volume":"13","author":"Campa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/82.1.49","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis: Population reference values for phase angle by age and sex","volume":"82","author":"Barros","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"343","article-title":"Regulation of cell function by the cellular hydration state","volume":"267","author":"Haussinger","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)90828-5","article-title":"Cellular hydration state: an important determinant of protein catabolism in health and disease","volume":"341","author":"Haussinger","year":"1993","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200737100-00006","article-title":"Hydration and muscular performance: Does fluid balance affect strength, power and high-intensity endurance?","volume":"37","author":"Judelson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sports Med."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/3\/759\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:08:31Z","timestamp":1760364511000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/3\/759"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17030759"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17030759","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,24]]}}}