{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T18:21:19Z","timestamp":1771352479907,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,10]],"date-time":"2020-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599696000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA) is a widely used method based on the interpretation of raw bioimpedance parameters to evaluate body composition and cellular health in athletes. However, several variables contribute to influencing BIVA patterns by militating against an optimal interpretation of the data. This study aims to explore the association of morphological characteristics with bioelectrical properties in volleyball, soccer, and rugby players. Methods: 164 athletes belonging to professional teams (age 26.2 \u00b1 4.4 yrs; body mass index (BMI) 25.4 \u00b1 2.4 kg\/m2) underwent bioimpedance and anthropometric measurements. Bioelectric resistance (R) and reactance (Xc) were standardized for the athlete\u2019s height and used to plot the vector in the R-Xc graph according to the BIVA approach. Total body water (TBW), phase angle (PhA), and somatotype were determined from bioelectrical and anthropometric data. Results: No significant difference (p &gt; 0.05) for age and for age at the start of competition among the athletes was found. Athletes divided into groups of TBW limited by quartiles showed significant differences in the mean vector position in the R-Xc graph (p &lt; 0.001), where a higher content of body fluids resulted in a shorter vector and lower positioning in the graph. Furthermore, six categories of somatotypes were identified, and the results of bivariate and partial correlation analysis highlighted a direct association between PhA and mesomorphy (r = 0.401, p &lt; 0.001) while showing an inverse correlation with ectomorphy (r = \u22120.416, p &lt; 0.001), even adjusted for age. On the contrary, no association was observed between PhA and endomorphy (r = 0.100, p = 0.471). Conclusions: Body fluid content affects the vector length in the R-Xc graph. In addition, the lateral displacement of the vector, which determines the PhA, can be modified by the morphological characteristics of the athlete. In particular, higher PhA values are observed in subjects with a high mesomorphic component, whereas lower values are found when ectomorphy is dominant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17186604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,10]],"date-time":"2020-09-10T22:58:01Z","timestamp":1599778681000},"page":"6604","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Body Water Content and Morphological Characteristics Modify Bioimpedance Vector Patterns in Volleyball, Soccer, and Rugby Players"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3028-7802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Campa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy"}]},{"given":"Analiza M.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Catarina N.","family":"Matias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Cristina P.","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0474-4229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Paoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8144-5906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Pedro","family":"Nunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory, Physical Education and Sports Center, Londrina State University, 86057 Londrina, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6273-3355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacopo","family":"Talluri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of clinical research and development, Akern Ltd., 56121 Pisa, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5418-5851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henry","family":"Lukaski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Kinesiology and Public Health Education, Hyslop Sports Center, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5478-2499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Toselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castizo-Olier, J., Irurtia, A., Jemni, M., Carrasco-Marginet, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Garc\u00eda, R., and Rodr\u00edguez, F.A. (2018). Bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) in sport and exercise: Systematic review and future perspectives. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197957"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1994.305","article-title":"A new method for monitoring body fluid variation by bioimpedance analysis: The RXc graph","volume":"46","author":"Piccoli","year":"1994","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campa, F., Matias, C., Gatterer, H., Toselli, S., Koury, J.C., Andreoli, A., Melchiorri, G., Sardinha, L.B., and Silva, A.M. (2019). Classic bioelectrical impedance vector reference values for assessing body composition in male and female athletes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16245066"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0039","article-title":"Bioimpedance vector analysis of elite, subelite, and low-level male volleyball players","volume":"13","author":"Campa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2608","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2018.1470597","article-title":"Bioimpedance patterns and bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) of road cyclists","volume":"36","author":"Giorgi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2013-0119","article-title":"Bioimpedance and impedance vector patterns as predictors of league level in male soccer players","volume":"9","author":"Micheli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campa, F., Silva, A.M., Iannuzzi, V., Mascherini, G., Benedetti, L., and Toselli, S. (2019). The role of somatic maturation on bioimpedance patterns and body composition in male elite youth soccer players. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16234711"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Ara\u00fajo Jer\u00f4nimo, A.F., Batalha, N., Collado-Mateo, D., and Parraca, J.A. (2020). Phase Angle from Bioelectric Impedance and Maturity-Related Factors in Adolescent Athletes: A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12124806"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2013-0397","article-title":"Phase angle and bioelectrical impedance vectors in adolescent and adult male athletes","volume":"9","author":"Koury","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toselli, S., Marini, E., Maietta Latessa, P., Benedetti, L., and Campa, F. (2020). Maturity Related Differences in Body Composition Assessed by Classic and Specific Bioimpedance Vector Analysis among Male Elite Youth Soccer Players. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030729"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campa, F., Piras, A., Raffi, M., Trof\u00e8, A., Perazzolo, M., Mascherini, G., and Toselli, S. (2020). The effects of dehydration on metabolic and neuromuscular functionality during cycling. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17041161"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0676","article-title":"Stabilizing bioimpedance-vector-analysis measures with a 10-minute cold shower after running exercise to enable assessment of body hydration","volume":"14","author":"Campa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrasco-Marginet, M., Castizo-Olier, J., Rodr\u00edguez-Zamora, L., Iglesias, X., Rodr\u00edguez, F.A., Chaverri, D., Brotons, D., and Irurtia, A. (2017). Bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) for measuring the hydration status in young elite synchronized swimmers. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178819"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatterer, H., Schenk, K., Laninschegg, L., Lukaski, H., and Burtscher, M. (2014). Bioimpedance identifies body FluidLoss after exercise in the heat: A pilot study with body cooling. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0109729"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.08.031","article-title":"Association between phase angle from bioelectrical impedance analysis and level of physical activity: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"38","author":"Mundstock","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2004.06.004","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance analysis\u2014part I: Review of principles and methods","volume":"23","author":"Kyle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2019-0285","article-title":"Identifying athlete body-fluid changes during a competitive season with bioelectrical impedance vector analysis","volume":"15","author":"Campa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francisco, R., Matias, C.N., Santos, D.A., Campa, F., Minderico, C.S., Rocha, P., Heymsfield, S.B., Lukaski, H., Sardinha, L.B., and Silva, A.M. (2020). The predictive role of raw bioelectrical impedance parameters in water compartments and fluid distribution assessed by dilution techniques in athletes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030759"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simini, F., and Bertemes-Filho, P. (2018). Body Composition by Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis. Bioimpedance in Biomedical Applications and Research, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-74388-2"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.02.016","article-title":"Phase angle and bioelectrical impedance vector analysis in the evaluation of body composition in athletes","volume":"39","author":"Marini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campa, F., Silva, A.M., Talluri, J., Matias, C.N., Badicu, G., and Toselli, S. (2020). Somatotype and Bioimpedance Vector Analysis: A New Target Zone for Male Athletes. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12114365"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114507243077","article-title":"Equivalence of information from single frequency v. bioimpedance spectroscopy in bodybuilders","volume":"97","author":"Piccoli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"571","article-title":"Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) and Body Mass Changes in an Ultra-Endurance Triathlon Event","volume":"17","author":"Roy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"749","article-title":"Changes in hydration, body-cell massand endurance performance of professional soccer players through a competitive season","volume":"55","author":"Mascherini","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Carter, J.E.L. (1980). The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method, San Diego State University Syllabus Service. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1969.27.6.787","article-title":"Structural changes in exercising middle-aged males during a 2-year period","volume":"27","author":"Carter","year":"1969","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.20.2.145","article-title":"Human hydration indices: Acute and longitudinal reference values","volume":"20","author":"Armstrong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Lohman, T.G., Roche, A.F., and Martorell, R. (1988). Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual, Human Kinetics Books."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preedy, V. (2012). Bioelectrical impedance vector analysis for assessment of hydration in physiological states and clinical conditions. Handbook of Anthropometry, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-1788-1"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2015.03.013","article-title":"Estimation of total body water and extracellular water with bioimpedance in athletes: A need for athlete-specific prediction models","volume":"35","author":"Matias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/61.2.269","article-title":"Bivariate normal values of the bioelectrical impedance vector in adult and elderly populations","volume":"61","author":"Piccoli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"47","article-title":"Analysis of the elite athletes\u2019somatotypes","volume":"9","author":"Rakovic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, M.C., Muros, J.J., L\u00f3pezm, B.\u00d3., and Zabala, M. (2020). Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite male young runners. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17020674"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-019-0319-2","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance phase angle in sport: A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Marra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reis, J.F., Matias, C.N., Campa, F., Morgado, J.P., Franco, P., Quaresma, P., Almeida, N., Curto, D., Toselli, S., and Monteiro, C.P. (2020). Bioimpedance Vector Patterns Changes in Response to Swimming Training: An Ecological Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17134851"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1055\/a-0969-2003","article-title":"Phase Angle is Moderately Associated with Short-term Maximal Intensity Efforts in Soccer Players","volume":"40","author":"Nabuco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1","article-title":"Usefulness of raw bioelectrical impedance parameters in tracking fluid shifts in judo athletes","volume":"28","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/15438627.2015.1126273","article-title":"Body fluid status and physical demand during the Giro d\u2019Italia","volume":"24","author":"Pollastri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Res. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0321-9","article-title":"Structural and functional body components in athletic health and performance phenotypes","volume":"73","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0355-z","article-title":"Lack of agreement of in vivo raw bioimpedance measurements obtained from two single and multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance devices","volume":"73","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/18\/6604\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:08:53Z","timestamp":1760177333000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/18\/6604"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,10]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17186604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17186604","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,10]]}}}