{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:01:36Z","timestamp":1760234496663,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Socioeconomic background has traditionally been the most important determinant of an individual\u2019s social advantage. Studies have used social class and opportunities based on parental income and education to predict such advantage. There is limited evidence that stratification mechanisms other than socioeconomic background can play an important role. The purpose of the study is to examine the influence of the traditional factors (income and education) of family background on students\u2019 social attachment styles compared to other background variables (civil status and number of children). Methods: We used the Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire as an outcome measure to assess students\u2019 social attachment advantage. As a point of departure, we use theories of social psychology to categorize social relations in terms of secure or insecure bonding, respectively. Results: A cross-sectional data set of 912 university students from five European countries was used. With respect to social attachment, the likelihood of being a student with robust relations increases by 23% if the students have high-income parents. Students with robust relations also have a decreased likelihood of poor body self-esteem by 19% when compared with other students. Conclusions: Stratification mechanisms other than social class, such as parental characteristics, civil status, and number of siblings, all affect the privileged students\u2019 social relations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18105135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]],"date-time":"2021-05-12T10:59:12Z","timestamp":1620817152000},"page":"5135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Does It Run in the Family? How Family Background Affects Attachment Styles for Students in Higher Education"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8700-6899","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bent E.","family":"Mikkelsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 23, DK-1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0215-1948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anette Q.","family":"Romani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology and Social Work, Aalborg University, Fibigerstr\u00e6de 13, 122, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}]},{"given":"Inger G.","family":"Bo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology and Social Work, Aalborg University, Fibigerstr\u00e6de 13, 122, DK-9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1867-9237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frantisek","family":"Sudzina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials and Production, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Aalborg University, A. C. Meyers V\u00e6nge 15, 2450 Copenhagen, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Systems Analysis, Faculty of Informatics and Statistics, University of Economics, n\u00e1m. W. Churchilla 1938\/4, 130 67 Prague, Czech Republic"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9272-0387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria P.","family":"Brand\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health, University of Aveiro, Edif\u00edcio 30, Agras do Crasto-Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Health Technology and Services Research, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-4446.12147","article-title":"Ultimate concerns in late modernity: Archer, Bourdieu and reflexivity","volume":"66","author":"Farrugia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muresan, G.M., Ciumas, C., and Achim, M.V. (2019). Can Money Buy Happiness? Evidence for European Countries. Appl. Res. Qual. Life.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11482-019-09714-3"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00135","article-title":"Does individualism bring happiness? Negative effects of individualism on interpersonal relationships and happiness","volume":"5","author":"Ogihara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheff, T.J. (1997). Emotions, the Social Bond, and Human Reality: Part\/Whole Analysis, Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l\u2019Homme.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511549496"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260516640544","article-title":"The Roles of Family Factors and Relationship Dynamics on Dating Violence Victimization and Perpetration Among College Men and Women in Emerging Adulthood","volume":"34","author":"Paat","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Karabel, J., and Halsey, A.H. (1977). Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction. Power and Ideology in Education, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/bjso.12251","article-title":"The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour","volume":"57","author":"Manstead","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024515519160","article-title":"Attachment Theory and Affect Regulation: The Dynamics, Development, and Cognitive Consequences of Attachment-Related Strategies","volume":"27","author":"Mikulincer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Motiv. Emot."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x","article-title":"Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect","volume":"52","author":"Bowlby","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Brennan, K.A., Clark, C.L., and Shaver, P.R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. Attachment Theory and Close Relationships, The Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.4103\/2249-4863.219992","article-title":"Association of social anxiety disorder with depression and quality of life among medical undergraduate students","volume":"6","author":"Ratnani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1348\/147608302169562","article-title":"Adult attachment: What are the underlying dimensions?","volume":"75","author":"Stein","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.69.6.1203","article-title":"Attachment style and the mental representation of the self","volume":"69","author":"Mikulincer","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.67.3.430","article-title":"Models of the self and other: Fundamental dimensions underlying measures of adult attachment","volume":"67","author":"Griffin","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.5.1380","article-title":"Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence","volume":"74","author":"Cooper","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1080\/14616730500365928","article-title":"Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood","volume":"7","author":"Sroufe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Attach. Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Scheff, T.J. (2006). Goffman Unbound! A New Paradigm for Social Science (Advancing the Sociological Imagination), Routledge."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T. (2011). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Open Road Media."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Giddens, A. (1992). The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies, Stanford University Press."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Polity Press."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Beck, U., and Beck-Gernsheim, E. (1995). The Normal Chaos of Love, Wiley-Blackwell."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Turner, J.H. (2001). The Emotional\/Relational World: Shame and the Social Bond. Handbook of Sociological Theory, Springer US."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Scheff, T.J.J. (1994). Microsociology: Discourse, Emotion, and Social Structure, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanel, P.H.P., and Vione, K.C. (2016). Do Student Samples Provide an Accurate Estimate of the General Public?. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168354"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romani, A.Q., Brand\u00e3o, M.P., Sudzina, F., Bo, I.G., and Mikkelsen, B.E. (2021). Does parental socioeconomic background influence body image and attachment style among university students? Evidence from a European cross-sectional study. Curr. Psychol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-021-01422-2"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1093\/esr\/jcp006","article-title":"Logistic Regression: Why We Cannot Do What We Think We Can Do, and What We Can Do About It","volume":"26","author":"Mood","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s11135-007-9077-3","article-title":"Linear versus logistic regression when the dependent variable is a dichotomy","volume":"43","author":"Hellevik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Quality & Quantity: Int. J. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Wooldridge, J.M. (2012). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach, South-Western Cengage Learning. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s11482-017-9567-y","article-title":"Individual and Contextual Factors of Happiness and Life Satisfaction in a Low Middle Income Country","volume":"13","author":"Sujarwoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Res. Qual. Life"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/10\/5135\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:59:53Z","timestamp":1760162393000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/10\/5135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18105135"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18105135","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,12]]}}}