{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T12:33:23Z","timestamp":1770726803469,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]],"date-time":"2021-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622937600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NUS iHealthtech and NUS Department of Psychological Medicine OOE","award":["R-177-000-004-731, R-17700-003-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R-177-000-004-731, R-17700-003-001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Prolonged lockdowns with stay-at-home orders have been introduced in many countries since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. They have caused a drastic change in the everyday lives of people living in urbanized areas, and are considered to contribute to a modified perception of the public space. As research related to the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on mental health and well-being emerges, the associated longitudinal changes of brain hemodynamics in healthy adults remain largely unknown. (2) Methods: this study examined the hemodynamic activation patterns of the prefrontal and occipital cortices of 12 participants (5 male, Mage = 47.80, SDage = 17.79, range 25 to 74, and 7 female, Mage = 39.00, SDage = 18.18, range 21 to 65) passively viewing videos from three urban sites in Singapore (Urban Park, Neighborhood Landscape and City Center) at two different time points\u2014T1, before the COVID-19 pandemic and T2, soon after the lockdown was over. (3) Results: We observed a significant and marginally significant decrease in average oxyhemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) over time for each of the visual conditions. For both green spaces (Urban Park and Neighborhood Landscape), the decrease was in the visual cortex, while for the City Center with no green elements, the marginal decrease was observed in the visual cortex and the frontal eye fields. (4) Conclusions: The results suggest that the COVID-19-related lockdown experienced by urban inhabitants may have contributed to decreased brain hemodynamics, which are further related to a heightened risk of mental health disorders, such as depression or a decline in cognitive functions. Moreover, the busy City Center scenes induced a hemodynamic pattern associated with stress and anxiety, while urban green spaces did not cause such an effect. Urban green scenes can be an important factor to offset the negative neuropsychological impact of busy urban environments post-pandemic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18116118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]],"date-time":"2021-06-06T23:59:55Z","timestamp":1623023995000},"page":"6118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Hemodynamic Response to Three Types of Urban Spaces before and after Lockdown during the COVID-19 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5278-0374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Olszewska-Guizzo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health Innovation & Technology (iHealthtech) MD6, 14 Medical Drive, #14-01, Singapore 117599, Singapore"},{"name":"NeuroLandscape Foundation, Suwalska 8\/78, 03-252 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"given":"Ayako","family":"Mukoyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University, 1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551, Japan"}]},{"given":"Sho","family":"Naganawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University, 1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551, Japan"}]},{"given":"Ippeita","family":"Dan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University, 1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551, Japan"}]},{"given":"Syeda Fabeha","family":"Husain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, NUHS Tower Block, Level 9, 1E Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7092-9566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cyrus S.","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, NUHS Tower Block, Level 9, 1E Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9629-4493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roger","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health Innovation & Technology (iHealthtech) MD6, 14 Medical Drive, #14-01, Singapore 117599, Singapore"},{"name":"Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, NUHS Tower Block, Level 9, 1E Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.561785","article-title":"The AGE effect on protective behaviors during the COVID-19 outbreak: Sociodemographic, perceptions and psychological accounts","volume":"11","author":"Pasion","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammar, A., Chtourou, H., Boukhris, O., Trabelsi, K., Masmoudi, L., Brach, M., Bouaziz, B., Bentlage, E., How, D., and Ahmed, M. (2020). Covid-19 home confinement negatively impacts social participation and life satisfaction: A worldwide multicenter study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176237"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23066","article-title":"The impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders on health behaviors in adults","volume":"29","author":"Flanagan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70223-1","article-title":"Urbanisation and infectious diseases in a globalised world","volume":"11","author":"Alirol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1192\/apt.bp.115.015610","article-title":"Functional near-infrared spectroscopy in psychiatry","volume":"23","author":"Lai","year":"2017","journal-title":"BJPsych Adv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.004","article-title":"A review on continuous wave functional near-infrared spectroscopy and imaging instrumentation and methodology","volume":"85","author":"Scholkmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00378","article-title":"Diagnostic and predictive applications of functional near-infrared spectroscopy for major depressive disorder: A systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Ho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5604","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-019-07331-7","article-title":"Use of prefrontal cortex activity as a measure of learning curve in surgical novices: Results of a single blind randomised controlled trial","volume":"34","author":"Khoe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0193(1997)5:4<273::AID-HBM12>3.0.CO;2-F","article-title":"Covariations in ERP and PET measures of spatial selective attention in human extrastriate visual cortex","volume":"5","author":"Mangun","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1038\/372543a0","article-title":"Combined spatial and temporal imaging of brain activity during visual selective attention in humans","volume":"372","author":"Heinze","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x","article-title":"The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health","volume":"1249","author":"Bratman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herman, K., Ciechanowski, L., and Przegali\u0144ska, A. (2021). Emotional well-being in urban wilderness: Assessing states of calmness and alertness in informal green spaces (IGSs) with muse\u2014Portable EEG headband. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13042212"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J. (2017). Experimental study on the health benefits of garden landscape. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14070829"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olszewska-Guizzo, A., Sia, A., Fogel, A., and Ho, R. (2020). Can exposure to certain urban green spaces trigger frontal alpha asymmetry in the brain?\u2014Preliminary findings from a passive task EEG study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17020394"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916591231001","article-title":"Restorative effects of natural environment experiences","volume":"23","author":"Hartig","year":"1991","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x","article-title":"The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature","volume":"19","author":"Berman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1177\/00139160121973106","article-title":"Meditation, restoration, and the management of mental fatigue","volume":"33","author":"Kaplan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvp.2021.101590","article-title":"Effects of COVID-19-related stay-at-home order on neuropsychophysiological response to urban spaces: Beneficial role of exposure to nature?","volume":"75","author":"Fogel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2020, May 06). Moh Steps up Precautionary Measures in Response to Increase in Cases of Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia in Wuhan, Available online: https:\/\/www.moh.gov.sg\/news-highlights\/details\/moh-steps-up-precautionary-measures-in-response-to-increase-in-cases-of-novel-coronavirus-pneumonia-in-wuhan."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130067","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0067","article-title":"Attention in natural scenes: Contrast affects rapid visual processing and fixations alike","volume":"368","author":"Hart","year":"2013","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.10.043","article-title":"Virtual spatial registration of stand-alone fNIRS data to MNI space","volume":"34","author":"Tsuzuki","year":"2007","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2011.10.008","article-title":"Stable and convenient spatial registration of stand-alone NIRS data through anchor-based probabilistic registration","volume":"72","author":"Tsuzuki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.07.025","article-title":"Spatial registration for functional near-infrared spectroscopy: From channel position on the scalp to cortical location in individual and group analyses","volume":"85","author":"Tsuzuki","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1155\/2000\/421719","article-title":"Stereotaxic display of brain lesions","volume":"12","author":"Rorden","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D280","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.00D280","article-title":"HomER: A review of time-series analysis methods for near-infrared spectroscopy of the brain","volume":"48","author":"Huppert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015004","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.1.1.015004","article-title":"Optimizing the general linear model for functional near-infrared spectroscopy: An adaptive hemodynamic response function approach","volume":"1","author":"Uga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.5.1657","article-title":"Interpretation of near-infrared spectroscopy signals: A study with a newly developed perfused rat brain model","volume":"90","author":"Hoshi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2002.1227","article-title":"A quantitative comparison of simultaneous BOLD fMRI and NIRS recordings during functional brain activation","volume":"17","author":"Strangman","year":"2002","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.00053","article-title":"Functional near-infrared optical imaging: Utility and limitations in human brain mapping","volume":"40","author":"Hoshi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2005.12.008","article-title":"Event-related functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS): Are the measurements reliable?","volume":"31","author":"Plichta","year":"2006","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034004","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3127204","article-title":"Wavelet minimum description length detrending for near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"14","author":"Jang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.1997.0306","article-title":"Event-related fMRI: Characterizing differential responses","volume":"7","author":"Friston","year":"1998","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.2.1.015002","article-title":"Exploring effective multiplicity in multichannel functional near-infrared spectroscopy using eigenvalues of correlation matrices","volume":"2","author":"Uga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"American Psychological Association (1994). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, APA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797619830326","article-title":"The prevalence of marginally significant results in psychology over time","volume":"30","author":"Hartgerink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1997.0070","article-title":"Hemispheric specialization for global and local processing: The effect of stimulus category","volume":"Volume 264","author":"Fink","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00317","article-title":"Effects of 3D contemplative landscape videos on brain activity in a passive exposure EEG experiment","volume":"9","author":"Paiva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"901","article-title":"The association between physical and mental health and face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparison of two countries with different views and practices","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-66784-2","article-title":"Validating a functional near-infrared spectroscopy diagnostic paradigm for major depressive disorder","volume":"10","author":"Husain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, L.M., Aitchison, R.T., Tawse, M., Simmers, A.J., and Shahani, U. (2015). Reduced haemodynamic response in the ageing visual cortex measured by absolute fNIRS. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125012"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1159\/000078503","article-title":"Cerebral haemodynamics in the elderly: The rotterdam study","volume":"23","author":"Bakker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-012-1020-7","article-title":"Depression and treatment response: Dynamic interplay of signaling pathways and altered neural processes","volume":"70","author":"Duric","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.58.2.330","article-title":"Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology: I","volume":"58","author":"Davidson","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1037\/0882-7974.18.2.285","article-title":"Evaluating the interdependence of aging-related changes in visual and auditory acuity, balance, and cognitive functioning","volume":"18","author":"Hofer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78438-4","article-title":"Physical activity and screen time of children and adolescents before and during the COVID-19 lockdown in Germany: A natural experiment","volume":"10","author":"Schmidt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.07.034","article-title":"Digital screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic: Risk for a further myopia boom?","volume":"223","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casta\u00f1eda-Babarro, A., Arbillaga-Etxarri, A., Guti\u00e9rrez-Santamar\u00eda, B., and Coca, A. (2020). Physical activity change during COVID-19 confinement. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17186878"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2020.106301","article-title":"Evolution of changes in physical activity over lockdown time: Physical activity datasets of four independent adult sample groups corresponding to each of the last four of the six COVID-19 lockdown weeks in Greece","volume":"32","author":"Bourdas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0420.2005.00352.x","article-title":"Reduction of asthenopia related to accommodative relaxation by means of far point stimuli","volume":"83","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.3126\/nepjoph.v5i2.8707","article-title":"Computer vision syndrome: A study of knowledge and practices in university students","volume":"5","author":"Reddy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nepal. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7235","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120707235","article-title":"The prefrontal cortex activity and psychological effects of viewing forest landscapes in autumn season","volume":"12","author":"Joung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23849","article-title":"Multichannel wearable f NIRS-EEG system for long-term clinical monitoring","volume":"39","author":"Kassab","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6118\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:11:22Z","timestamp":1760163082000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18116118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18116118","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,6]]}}}