{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,2]],"date-time":"2025-11-02T04:22:31Z","timestamp":1762057351853,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]],"date-time":"2022-06-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655769600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005765","name":"University of Lisbon","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BDUL\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BDUL\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005765","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parental alienation (PA) and its conceptualization or understanding of the process underlying this dynamic has long been controversial, but it has also been frequently brought to courtrooms. This study provides an account of how legal professionals conceptualize \u201cparental alienation\u201d and how they describe the characteristics of the phenomenon. Using a qualitative design, 21 family court judges (range 33\u201360 years; 11 men and 10 women), working with child custody cases, participated in an individual in-depth interview. A qualitative analysis based on Grounded Theory basic procedures revealed a complex picture of alienation dynamics with five interconnected results. First, PA contexts and landscapes, which included the judges\u2019 perceptions on the PA nurturing contexts, its strategic behavior patterns and functions, portraits of PA and clues for its identification; second, considerations on PA severity; third, the influential factors, including those related to the emergence of PA; fourth, individual and relational impact of being exposed to PA; and fifth, perceived signs of change. The results also allowed for the complexification of the judges\u2019 theories, revealing six properties of the PA concept: elasticity, intentionality and camouflage, power asymmetries, multifactorial nature, and destructiveness. Directions for future research are expanded from these results and pragmatic contributions of knowledge on judges\u2019 critical thinking on PA issues and its manifestations in legal practice are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19137555","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]],"date-time":"2022-06-21T21:55:19Z","timestamp":1655848519000},"page":"7555","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["How Do Family Court Judges Theorize about Parental Alienation? A Qualitative Exploration of the Territory"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Telma M.","family":"Marques","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CICPSI, Faculty of Psychology, University of Lisbon|Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Isabel","family":"Narciso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICPSI, Faculty of Psychology, University of Lisbon|Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Luana C.","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICPSI, Faculty of Psychology, University of Lisbon|Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1111\/fcre.12472","article-title":"Parental Alienation: In Search of Common Ground For a More Differentiated Theory","volume":"58","author":"Johnston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2020.105572","article-title":"Empirical research on parental alienation: A descriptive literature review","volume":"119","author":"Marques","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"302","article-title":"Judgments regarding parental alienation when parental hostility or child sexual abuse is alleged","volume":"15","author":"Goldfarb","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Child Custody"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Lorandos, D., and Bernet, W. (2020). Parental Alienation: An international perspective. Parental Alienation: Science and Law, Charles C Thomas, Publisher, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Lorandos, D., and Bernet, W. (2020). Introduction to parental alienation. Parental Alienation: Science and Law, Charles C Thomas, Publisher, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/09649069.2019.1701922","article-title":"The legitimization and institutionalization of \u2018parental alienation\u2019 in the Province of Quebec","volume":"42","author":"Lapierre","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Soc. Welf. Fam. Law"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1080\/15379418.2017.1416723","article-title":"Misogyny in New York custody decisions with parental alienation and child sexual abuse allegations","volume":"14","author":"Milchman","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Child Custody"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/fcre.12475","article-title":"Parental Alienation in U.S. Courts, 1985 to 2018","volume":"58","author":"Lorandos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Feitor, S.I. (2017). Aliena\u00e7\u00e3o Parental sob a Perspetiva do Novo Regime Geral do Processo Tutelar C\u00edvel, Chiado Editora. Parental Alienation from the Perspective of the New General Regime of the Civil Guardianship Process."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Centro de Estudos Judici\u00e1rios, Jurisdi\u00e7\u00e3o da fam\u00edlia e das crian\u00e7as (2022, January 07). O Fen\u00f3meno \u201cAliena\u00e7\u00e3o Parental\u201d: Mito(s) e Realidade(s). The \"Parental Alienation\" Phenomenon: Myth(s) and Reality(ies), 2018. Available online: http:\/\/www.cej.mj.pt\/cej\/recursos\/ebooks\/familia\/eb_AlienacaoParental2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/01926180801960658","article-title":"Examining Parental Alienation in Child Custody Cases: A Survey of Mental Health and Legal Professionals","volume":"37","author":"Bow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01926180600698368","article-title":"Knowledge and Attitudes About the Parental Alienation Syndrome: A Survey of Custody Evaluators","volume":"35","author":"Baker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/15379418.2015.1120476","article-title":"A Qualitative Study of Child Custody Evaluators\u2019 Beliefs and Opinions","volume":"12","author":"Sanders","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Child Custody"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1080\/01926180590962110","article-title":"Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) in the Netherlands","volume":"33","author":"Spruijt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1080\/01926180490499864","article-title":"An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome","volume":"32","author":"Rueda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/10502556.2014.901833","article-title":"Exploring the Lived Experiences of Psychologists Working With Parental Alienation Syndrome","volume":"55","author":"Viljoen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Divorce Remarriage"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/019261802753573821","article-title":"Parental Alienation Syndrome vs. Parental Alienation: Which Diagnosis Should Evaluators Use in Child-Custody Disputes?","volume":"30","author":"Gardner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/01926187.2016.1145084","article-title":"Risks to Professionals Who Work With Troubled and Alienated Parent-Child Relationships","volume":"44","author":"Warshak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.104045","article-title":"Parental alienation, coaching and the best interests of the child: Allegations of child sexual abuse in the Family Court of Australia","volume":"94","author":"Death","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/ajpy.12226","article-title":"Characteristics and experiences of targeted parents of parental alienation from their own perspective: A systematic literature review","volume":"71","author":"Maturana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aust. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-6427.12137","article-title":"Recommendations for best practice in response to parental alienation: Findings from a systematic review","volume":"39","author":"Templer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"351","article-title":"Examining Parental Alienation Treatments: Problems of Principles and Practices","volume":"36","author":"Mercer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infant Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychological Association (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Am. Psychol., 57, 1060\u20131073.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0003-066X.57.12.1060"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychological Association (2010). 2010 Amendments to the 2002 Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Am. Psychol., 65, 493.","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020168"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Denzin, N., and Lincoln, Y. (2018). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Birks, M., and Mills, J. (2011). Grounded Theory\u2014A Practical Guide, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Daly, K.J. (2007). Qualitative Methods for Family Studies & Human Development, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1111\/fcre.12476","article-title":"Ideology and Rhetoric Replace Science and Reason in Some Parental Alienation Literature and Advocacy: A Critique","volume":"58","author":"Milchman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2011.628272","article-title":"Is Parental Alienation Disorder a Valid Concept? Not According to Scientific Evidence. A Review of Parental Alienation, DSM-5 and ICD-11 by William Bernet","volume":"21","author":"Pepiton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Child Sex. Abus."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lorandos, D., and Bernet, W. (2020). Parental alienation terminology and definitions\u2014Appendix A. Parental Alienation: Science and Law, Charles C Thomas, Publisher, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1080\/10502556.2013.828982","article-title":"The attitude of the Shari\u2019a courts to parental alienation syndrome: Understanding the dynamics of the syndrome in Arab Society","volume":"54","author":"Gith","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Divorce Remarriage"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1111\/j.174-1617.2001.tb00609.x","article-title":"THE ALIENATED CHILD: A Reformulation of Parental Alienation Syndrome","volume":"39","author":"Kelly","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Lorandos, D., and Bernet, W. (2020). Parental alienating behaviors. Parental Alienation: Science and Law, Charles C Thomas, Publisher, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1111\/pere.12392","article-title":"Power dynamics in families affected by parental alienation","volume":"28","author":"Harman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pers. Relationships"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-1617.2009.01291.x","article-title":"When a child rejects a parent: Tailoring the intervention to fit the problem","volume":"48","author":"Friedlander","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1300\/J087v45n01_06","article-title":"Behaviors and Strategies Employed in Parental Alienation","volume":"45","author":"Baker","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Divorce Remarriage"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1300\/J087v45n03_07","article-title":"Perceived Parent-Child Alienation","volume":"45","author":"Biringen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Divorce Remarriage"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2012.04.005","article-title":"Parental Alienation Syndrome in Italian legal judgments: An exploratory study","volume":"35","author":"Lavadera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Law Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-1617.2011.01374.x","article-title":"Parental Alienation and the Dynamics of the Enmeshed Parent-Child Dyad: Adultification, Parentification, and Infantilization","volume":"49","author":"Garber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1111\/fcre.12238","article-title":"When a Child Rejects a Parent: Working With the Intractable Resist\/Refuse Dynamic","volume":"54","author":"Walters","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1111\/fcre.12492","article-title":"Dynamics, Not Diagnoses","volume":"58","author":"Garber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fam. Court Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1037\/law0000216","article-title":"When evaluators get it wrong: False positive IDs and parental alienation","volume":"26","author":"Warshak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Public Policy Law"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/13\/7555\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:36:15Z","timestamp":1760139375000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/19\/13\/7555"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph19137555"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph19137555","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]]}}}