{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T11:31:43Z","timestamp":1768822303792,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,12]],"date-time":"2019-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT\/MCT) and from European Funds (PRODER\/COMPETE)","award":["M-ERA-NET\/0004\/2015-PAIRED and UID\/AGR\/04033\/2019 (CITAB)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["M-ERA-NET\/0004\/2015-PAIRED and UID\/AGR\/04033\/2019 (CITAB)"]}]},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology","award":["project ART(2018)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["project ART(2018)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a predominant and deteriorating chronic inflammation of the skin, categorized by robust burning and eczematous lacerations in diverse portions of the body. AD affects about 20% of both offspring and adults worldwide. The pathophysiology of AD combines environmental, hereditary, and immunological aspects, together with skin barrier dysfunction. The procedures used to prevent the disease are the everyday usage of creams to support the restoration of the epidermal barrier. The classical treatments include the use of topical corticosteroids as a first-line therapy, but also calcineurin inhibitors, antihistamines, antibiotics, phototherapy, and also immunosuppressant drugs in severe cases of AD. Topical drug delivery to deeper skin layers is a difficult task due to the skin anatomic barrier, which limits deeper penetration of drugs. Groundbreaking drug delivery systems, based on nanoparticles (NPs), have received much attention due to their ability to improve solubility, bioavailability, diffusion, targeting to specific types of cells, and limiting the secondary effects of the drugs employed in the treatment of AD. Even so, additional studies are still required to recognize the toxicological characteristics and long-term safety of NPs. This review discusses the current classical pharmacotherapy of AD against new nanoparticle skin delivery systems and their toxicologic risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20225659","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,13]],"date-time":"2019-11-13T09:11:27Z","timestamp":1573636287000},"page":"5659","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["Trends in Atopic Dermatitis\u2014From Standard Pharmacotherapy to Novel Drug Delivery Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9737-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eliana B.","family":"Souto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8502-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Dias-Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"J\u00e9ssica","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2571-108X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Sanchez-Lopez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Ave. Joan XXIII, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Lopez-Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), P\u00f3lo das Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Ave. Joan XXIII, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1269-3847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Espina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Ave. Joan XXIII, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain"}]},{"given":"Maria L.","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Ave. Joan XXIII, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain"}]},{"given":"Selma B.","family":"Souto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endocrinology, Hospital de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1564-3661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Martins-Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Biology and Environment, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7524-9914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Am\u00e9lia M.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Biology and Environment, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2305","DOI":"10.15419\/bmrat.v5i5.444","article-title":"Therapeutic effects of topically-administered guar gum nanoparticles in oxazolone-induced atopic dermatitis in mice","volume":"5","author":"Ghosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. 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