{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T03:25:02Z","timestamp":1777173902441,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":179,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,26]],"date-time":"2022-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) from the Ministry of Science and Technology (MCTES), European Social Fund (FSE)","award":["SFRH\/BD\/130555\/2017, UIDB\/04469\/2020 (CEB strategic fund), UIDB\/04033\/2020 (CITAB)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/130555\/2017, UIDB\/04469\/2020 (CEB strategic fund), UIDB\/04033\/2020 (CITAB)"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MINIATURA 4 (grant no: 2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00789)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MINIATURA 4 (grant no: 2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00789)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001870","name":"Foundation for Polish Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["START 2021 Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["START 2021 Program"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001870","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an eye disease typically associated with the aging and can be classified into two types\u2014namely, the exudative and the nonexudative AMD. Currently available treatments for exudative AMD use intravitreal injections, which are associated with high risk of infection that can lead to endophthalmitis, while no successful treatments yet exist for the nonexudative form of AMD. In addition to the pharmacologic therapies administered by intravitreal injection already approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in exudative AMD, there are some laser treatments approved that can be used in combination with the pharmacological therapies. In this review, we discuss the latest developments of treatment options for AMD. Relevant literature available from 1993 was used, which included original articles and reviews available in PubMed database and also information collected from Clinical Trials Gov website using \u201cage-related macular degeneration\u201d and \u201cantiangiogenic therapies\u201d as keywords. The clinical trials search was limited to ongoing trials from 2015 to date.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,27]],"date-time":"2022-02-27T20:47:17Z","timestamp":1645994837000},"page":"2592","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Exudative versus Nonexudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Physiopathology and Treatment Options"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8787-7854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Rita","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"i3s\u2014Institute for Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEB\u2014Biomedical Engineering Institute, University of Porto, Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2603-1377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Zieli\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Human Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszy\u0144ska 32, 60-479 Pozna\u0144, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2571-108X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Sanchez-Lopez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"given":"Tiago","family":"dos Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"i3s\u2014Institute for Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEB\u2014Biomedical Engineering Institute, University of Porto, Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Luisa","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7524-9914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amelia M.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Biology and Environment, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8322-4186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacek","family":"Karczewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-479 Pozna\u0144, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, H. Swiecicki University Hospital, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-355 Pozna\u0144, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9737-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eliana B.","family":"Souto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CEB\u2014Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory, 4800-122 Braga, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2021.100952","article-title":"Implications of genetic variation in the complement system in age-related macular degeneration","volume":"84","author":"Gagliardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. 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