{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T02:06:12Z","timestamp":1774663572468,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]],"date-time":"2022-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["19K10427"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K10427"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["19K11202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19K11202"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["20H05743"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H05743"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) has become a problem, owing to its high prevalence in an aging society with no treatment available after onset. However, early diagnosis is essential for preventive intervention to delay disease onset due to its slow progression. The current AD diagnostic methods are typically invasive and expensive, limiting their potential for widespread use. Thus, the development of biomarkers in available biofluids, such as blood, urine, and saliva, which enables low or non-invasive, reasonable, and objective evaluation of AD status, is an urgent task. Here, we reviewed studies that examined biomarker candidates for the early detection of AD. Some of the candidates showed potential biomarkers, but further validation studies are needed. We also reviewed studies for non-invasive biomarkers of AD. Given the complexity of the AD continuum, multiple biomarkers with machine-learning-classification methods have been recently used to enhance diagnostic accuracy and characterize individual AD phenotypes. Artificial intelligence and new body fluid-based biomarkers, in combination with other risk factors, will provide a novel solution that may revolutionize the early diagnosis of AD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094962","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]],"date-time":"2022-04-30T05:44:07Z","timestamp":1651297447000},"page":"4962","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":90,"title":["Biomarkers for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in the Current State: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Serafettin","family":"Gunes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ph.D. Program in Health Data Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0760-6561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yumi","family":"Aizawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Minimally Invasive Therapies, Institute of Medical Science Research and Development, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan"}]},{"given":"Takuma","family":"Sugashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Minimally Invasive Therapies, Institute of Medical Science Research and Development, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3316-2543","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masahiro","family":"Sugimoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Minimally Invasive Therapies, Institute of Medical Science Research and Development, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7867-6682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Pereira","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RISE & MEDCIDS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765454","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.765454","article-title":"Dementia Risk Scores and Their Role in the Implementation of Risk Reduction Guidelines","volume":"12","author":"Anstey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. 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