{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T14:49:23Z","timestamp":1777992563915,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,4]],"date-time":"2022-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Scholarships Santander Research\/Convocat\u00f2ria d\u2019estades 2022 per a doctorands de la UB","award":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Scholarships Santander Research\/Convocat\u00f2ria d\u2019estades 2022 per a doctorands de la UB","award":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"]}]},{"name":"UAM\/Santander program for the mobility of young researchers","award":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"]}]},{"name":"UAM\/Santander program for the mobility of young researchers","award":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"]}]},{"name":"the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT\/MTC) for the scholarship","award":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/04729\/2020"]}]},{"name":"the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT\/MTC) for the scholarship","award":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04033\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Damage to the retinal pigment epithelium, Bruch\u2019s membrane and\/or tissues underlying macula is known to increase the risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). AMD is commonly categorized in two distinct types, namely, the nonexudative (dry form) and the exudative (wet form). Currently, there is no ideal treatment available for AMD. Recommended standard treatments are based on the use of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), with the disadvantage of requiring repeated intravitreal injections which hinder patient\u2019s compliance to the therapy. In recent years, several synthetic and natural active compounds have been proposed as innovative therapeutic strategies against this disease. There is a growing interest in the development of formulations based on nanotechnology because of its important role in the management of posterior eye segment disorders, without the use of intravitreal injections, and furthermore, with the potential to prolong drug release and thus reduce adverse effects. In the same way, 3D bioprinting constitutes an alternative to regeneration therapies for the human retina to restore its functions. The application of 3D bioprinting may change the current and future perspectives of the treatment of patients with AMD, especially those who do not respond to conventional treatment. To monitor the progress of AMD treatment and disease, retinal images are used. In this work, we revised the recent challenges encountered in the treatment of different forms of AMD, innovative nanoformulations, 3D bioprinting, and techniques to monitor the progress.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231911769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,8]],"date-time":"2022-10-08T23:39:31Z","timestamp":1665272371000},"page":"11769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Therapeutic Approaches for Age-Related Macular Degeneration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7070-9061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruth M.","family":"Galindo-Camacho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Unit of Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Peptides, IQAC-CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1064-0306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Blanco-Llamero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Healthy Lipids Group, Departmental Section of Food Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"given":"Raquel","family":"da Ana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Mayra A.","family":"Fuertes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0775-6957","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco J.","family":"Se\u00f1or\u00e1ns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Healthy Lipids Group, Departmental Section of Food Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7524-9914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Am\u00e9lia M.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Environment, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda L.","family":"Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9737-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eliana B.","family":"Souto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"REQUIMTE\/UCIBIO, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546786","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/546786","article-title":"Mechanism of Inflammation in Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"2012","author":"Parmeggiani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mediat. 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