{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T20:24:54Z","timestamp":1775593494652,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,6]],"date-time":"2024-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712361600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022.08400.PTDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.08400.PTDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) have been used for more than 30 years to improve magnetic resonance imaging, a crucial tool for medical diagnosis and treatment monitoring across multiple clinical settings. Studies have shown that exposure to GBCAs is associated with gadolinium release and tissue deposition that may cause short- and long-term toxicity in several organs, including the kidney, the main excretion organ of most GBCAs. Considering the increasing prevalence of chronic kidney disease worldwide and that most of the complications following GBCA exposure are associated with renal dysfunction, the mechanisms underlying GBCA toxicity, especially renal toxicity, are particularly important. A better understanding of the gadolinium mechanisms of toxicity may contribute to clarify the safety and\/or potential risks associated with the use of GBCAs. In this work, a review of the recent literature concerning gadolinium and GBCA mechanisms of toxicity was performed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25074071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,8]],"date-time":"2024-04-08T09:31:23Z","timestamp":1712568683000},"page":"4071","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Toxicity Mechanisms of Gadolinium and Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents\u2014A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Susana","family":"Coimbra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1H-TOXRUN\u20141H-Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Polit\u00e9cnico e Universit\u00e1rio (CESPU), Advanced Polytechnic and University Cooperative, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4196-2217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"N\u00edcia Reis","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia da Sa\u00fade, Instituto Superior Polit\u00e9cnico de Benguela, Benguela, Angola"}]},{"given":"Cristina","family":"Catarino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3941-6850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Belo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3571-2513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsa","family":"Bronze-da-Rocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800 Copenhagen, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2565-3169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Santos-Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Associate Laboratory i4HB\u2014Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UCIBIO\u2014Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculdade de Farm\u00e1cia da Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1097\/00002142-200108000-00002","article-title":"Conception of the first magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents: A brief history","volume":"12","year":"2001","journal-title":"Top. 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