{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T10:20:53Z","timestamp":1768990853642,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742947200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G.A. 101091852"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G.A. 101091852"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/144490\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/144490\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G.A. 101091852"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G.A. 101091852"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/144490\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/144490\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), the leading cause of death worldwide, and their strong association with fibrosis highlight the pressing need for innovative antifibrotic therapies. In vitro models have emerged as valuable tools for replicating cardiac fibrosis \u2018in a dish\u2019, facilitating the study of disease mechanisms and serving as platforms for drug testing and development. These in vitro systems encompass 2D and 3D models, each with its own limitations and advantages. 2D models offer high reproducibility, cost-effectiveness, and high-throughput capabilities, but they oversimplify the complex fibrotic environment. On the other hand, 3D models provide greater biological relevance but are more complex, harder to reproduce, and less suited for high-throughput screening. The choice of model depends on the specific research question and the stage of drug development. Despite significant progress, challenges remain, including the integration of immune cells in cardiac fibrosis and optimizing the scalability and throughput of highly biomimetic systems. Herein, we review recent in vitro cardiac fibrosis models, with a focus on their shared characteristics and remaining challenges, and explore how in vitro fibrosis models of other organs could inspire novel approaches in cardiac research, showcasing potential strategies that could be adapted to refine myocardial fibrosis models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26073038","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T09:13:26Z","timestamp":1742980406000},"page":"3038","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Dressed in Collagen: 2D and 3D Cardiac Fibrosis Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8834-9739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Cardona-Timoner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Biom\u00e9dica (INEB), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto (FEUP), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4237-2024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita N.","family":"Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Biom\u00e9dica (INEB), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6402-4245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana S.","family":"Nascimento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Biom\u00e9dica (INEB), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2938-9","article-title":"Fibrosis: From mechanisms to medicines","volume":"587","author":"Henderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2018.07.001","article-title":"Cardiac fibrosis: Cell biological mechanisms, molecular pathways and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"65","author":"Frangogiannis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. 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