{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,22]],"date-time":"2026-03-22T09:02:22Z","timestamp":1774170142022,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":244,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research Centre of the Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto","award":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"]}]},{"name":"Research Centre of the Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto","award":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Research Centre of the Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto","award":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC): LEPABE","award":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC): LEPABE","award":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC): LEPABE","award":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"]}]},{"name":"ALiCE","award":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI86-CI-IPOP-66-2017"]}]},{"name":"ALiCE","award":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"]}]},{"name":"ALiCE","award":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer-associated cachexia (CAC), also known as wasting syndrome, is a systemic condition that affects multiple tissues and organs via a variety of metabolic pathways. Systemic inflammation, progressive weight loss, depletion of adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle impairment are some of the hallmark features of cachexia. Despite various studies on the clinical features of CAC, the complexity of the syndrome continues to pose significant challenges in clinical practice, leading to late diagnoses and the absence of a standardised treatment. Men and women respond differently to CAC, which may be prompted by the pre-existing physiologic sex differences. This review presents the sexual dimorphism associated with the hallmark pathways involved in CAC. A comprehensive understanding of sexual dimorphism in these pathways could drive research on cachexia to prioritise the inclusion of more females in related studies in order to achieve personalised sex-based therapeutic approaches and, consequently, enhance treatment efficacy and better patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26093952","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T20:24:52Z","timestamp":1745353492000},"page":"3952","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Hallmarks of Cancer Cachexia: Sexual Dimorphism in Related Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4832-7793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Setareh","family":"Satari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/CI-IPOP@RISE (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Dep.\/Clinical Pathology, Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (Porto.CCC Raquel Seruca), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto (FMUP), 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"The Institute of Public Health, University of Porto (ISPUP), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1016-6691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"In\u00eas N. R.","family":"Mota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/CI-IPOP@RISE (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Dep.\/Clinical Pathology, Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (Porto.CCC Raquel Seruca), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto (FCUP), 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1969-9363","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Carolina Le\u00e3o","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/CI-IPOP@RISE (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Dep.\/Clinical Pathology, Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (Porto.CCC Raquel Seruca), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto (FMUP), 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Haissa Oliveira","family":"Brito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center For Experimental and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology (NEC)\/Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB)\/Bioanalysis Lab (LaBIO), Federal University of Maranh\u00e3o (UFMA), S\u00e3o Lu\u00eds 65080-805, Brazil"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Inov4Agro, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9519-4044","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula A.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Inov4Agro, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2151-2449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui Miguel","family":"Gil da Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/CI-IPOP@RISE (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Dep.\/Clinical Pathology, Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (Porto.CCC Raquel Seruca), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Center For Experimental and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology (NEC)\/Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB)\/Bioanalysis Lab (LaBIO), Federal University of Maranh\u00e3o (UFMA), S\u00e3o Lu\u00eds 65080-805, Brazil"},{"name":"Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy (LEPABE), Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3010-8373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Medeiros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP)\/CI-IPOP@RISE (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto)\/Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Dep.\/Clinical Pathology, Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (Porto.CCC Raquel Seruca), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto (FMUP), 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS-School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Biomedical Research Center, Faculty of Health Sciences of the Fernando Pessoa University, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ECO-European Cancer Organization, 1040 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Research Department of the Portuguese League Against Cancer\u2014Regional Nucleus of the North (Liga Portuguesa Contra o Cancro\u2014N\u00facleo Regional do Norte), 4200-172 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21834","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2022, GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"74","author":"Bray","year":"2024","journal-title":"CA A Cancer J. 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