{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T09:24:40Z","timestamp":1777195480694,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":201,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]],"date-time":"2025-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759363200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"i3S\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade da Universidade do Porto"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT- Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UI\/BD\/151547\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UI\/BD\/151547\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spinal cord injury (SCI) poses a substantial physical, psychological and social burden. Although many therapies are currently available, it is still impossible to fully restore the lost organic functions of SCI patients. An important event in SCI physiopathology is the development of a neuron-repulsive fibrotic scar at the lesion site, a barrier that hampers neuronal growth and contributes to long-term functional impairment. This neuron-repulsive scar is present in severe spinal cord injuries in humans but is absent in some animals capable of natural regeneration. In humans and other mammals, various immune cells take part in the development and maturation of the glial scar, and cytokines and other molecular factors regulate the associated histologic changes. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and complement system proteins tend to be overexpressed early after SCI, but anti-inflammatory cytokines also participate in the remodelling of the injured tissue by regulating the excessively pro-inflammatory environment. This inflammatory regulation is not entirely successful in humans, and inflammation inhibitor drugs offer promising avenues for SCI treatment. Some non-specific immunosuppressor drugs have already been studied, but targeted modulation therapies may be more efficient and less prone to secondary effects. Continued experimental research and clinical trials are vital to advance findings and develop effective treatments, aiming to overcome the barriers to spinal cord regeneration and improve recovery for SCI patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26199624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]],"date-time":"2025-10-02T09:38:08Z","timestamp":1759397888000},"page":"9624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Immune Activation Following Spinal Cord Injury: A Review Focused on Inflammatory Changes in the Spinal Cord"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2156-437X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diogo","family":"Nascimento","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Experimental Biology Unit, Faculty of Medicine of Porto, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Unidade Local de Sa\u00fade de Entre o Douro e Vouga, 4520-211 Santa Maria da Feira, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5971-2537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Experimental Biology Unit, Faculty of Medicine of Porto, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Pain Neurobiology, Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade\u2014i3S and IBMC, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8922-5713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00e9lia Duarte","family":"Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Experimental Biology Unit, Faculty of Medicine of Porto, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Pain Neurobiology, Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade\u2014i3S and IBMC, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000004417","article-title":"Spinal Cord Injury: The Global Incidence, Prevalence, and Disability From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"47","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spine"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molinares, D.M., Gater, D.R., Daniel, S., and Pontee, N.L. 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