{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T13:16:33Z","timestamp":1773839793161,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773792000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\/MCTES under the R&D Unit Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/4029\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/4029\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\/MCTES under the R&D Unit Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/PRR\/04029\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/PRR\/04029\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Associate Laboratory Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems ARISE","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Portuguese Funds through FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/00013\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/00013\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infrastructures"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Surface texture plays a key role in pavement safety and performance, yet its degradation is influenced by multiple interacting factors that vary across road networks. This study developed statistical models to characterize and predict surface texture evolution on Portuguese highways using linear mixed-effects modeling. Texture measurements collected on 7204 pavement sections, each 100 m in length, over three monitoring cycles were analyzed alongside traffic, climatic, pavement structural, geometric, and spatial variables. The hierarchical structure of the data, with repeated measurements nested within pavement sections, was explicitly accounted for via random intercepts and random slopes. At the same time, temporal correlation was modeled via an autoregressive error structure. Two model specifications were evaluated: a model including only traffic and climatic variables and an extended model incorporating pavement and geometric characteristics. Results indicate that texture evolution is statistically associated with cumulative traffic loading, temperature-related indicators, precipitation, surface course type, lane position, vertical alignment, and altitude. The extended model showed a significantly better fit and superior predictive performance, as confirmed by information criteria and cross-validation metrics. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for section-level heterogeneity and roadway characteristics when modeling texture degradation. The proposed modeling framework provides a statistically scalable and robust tool for texture prediction, accounting for regional-specificities and long-term pavement management decisions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures11030101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T09:10:04Z","timestamp":1773825004000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Network-Level Modeling of Pavement Surface Macrotexture Degradation Using Linear Mixed-Effects Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0202-1991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul","family":"Almeida","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering\u2014ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Adriana","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ASCENDI, 4100-360 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8014-9902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CMAT, Department of Mathematics, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5132-7407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabete","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering\u2014ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"382","article-title":"Evaluation of Pavement Skid Resistance Using High Speed Texture Measurement","volume":"2","author":"Meegoda","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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