{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T19:39:44Z","timestamp":1776800384196,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,26]],"date-time":"2021-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infrastructures"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents an experimental investigation into the effects of porosity, dry density and cement content on the unconfined compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of cement-bound soil mixtures. A clayey sand was used with two different proportions of type IV Portland cement, 10% and 14% of the dry mass of the soil. Specimens were moulded with the same water content but using four different compaction efforts, corresponding to four different dry densities. Unconfined compression testing was conducted at seven days of curing time on unsoaked samples. The results showed that the compressive strength increased with the increase in cement content and with the decrease in porosity. From the experimental data, a unique relationship was found between the unconfined compressive strength and the ratio of porosity to volumetric cement content for all the mixtures and compaction efforts tested. The equation developed demonstrates that it is possible to estimate the amount of cement and the dry density to achieve a certain level of unconfined compressive strength. A normalized general equation was also found to fit other authors\u2019 results for similar soils mixed with cement. From this, a cement-bound soil model was proposed for the development of a mixing design procedure for different soils.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures6070096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,27]],"date-time":"2021-06-27T22:24:57Z","timestamp":1624832697000},"page":"96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Effects of the Ratio of Porosity to Volumetric Cement Content on the Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Bound Fine Grained Soils"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1691-8153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teresa","family":"Santana","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UNIC\u2014Research Center in Structures and Construction, Civil Engineering Department, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Lisbon, Campus da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UNIC\u2014Research Center in Structures and Construction, Civil Engineering Department, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Lisbon, Campus da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0344-1867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS\u2014Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9910-1458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Micaelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS\u2014Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cement Soil Stabilization as an Improvement Technique for Rail Track Subgrade, and Highway Subbase and Base Courses: A Review","volume":"10","author":"Solihu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Civ. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:2(197)","article-title":"Key Parameters for Strength Control of Artificially Cemented Soils","volume":"133","author":"Consoli","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sandf.2016.11.011","article-title":"A unique relationship determining strength of silty\/clayey soils\u2014Portland cement mixes","volume":"56","author":"Consoli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soils Found."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1680\/jgein.17.00006","article-title":"A general relationship to estimate strength of fibre-reinforced cemented fine-grained soils","volume":"24","author":"Consoli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geosynth. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000698","article-title":"Effect of the Porosity\/Cement Ratio on the Compression of Cemented Soil","volume":"138","author":"Rios","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2008.09.003","article-title":"Effect of cement treatment on geotechnical properties of some Washington State soils","volume":"104","author":"Sariosseiri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.507.353","article-title":"Laboratory Investigation on the Strength Characteristics of Cement-Treated Base","volume":"507","author":"Ismail","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2018.04.015","article-title":"Effects of porosity, dry unit weight, cement content and void\/cement ratio on unconfined compressive strength of roof tile waste-silty soil mixtures","volume":"11","author":"Moreira","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gete.2017.11.001","article-title":"On the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a lime-treated embankment during wetting and drying cycles","volume":"14","author":"Rosone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomech. Energy Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"21","article-title":"Durability of Soil-Cement Blocks with the Incorporation of Limestone Residues from the Processing of Marble","volume":"21","author":"Azevedo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.798-799.548","article-title":"Environmental Durability of Soil-Cement Block Incorporated with Ornamental Stone Waste","volume":"798\u2013799","author":"Carvalho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.03.011","article-title":"Analysis of strength development in cement-stabilized silty clay from microstructural considerations","volume":"24","author":"Horpibulsuk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"146","article-title":"Reactions Accompanying Stabilization of Clay with Cement","volume":"36","author":"Herzog","year":"1963","journal-title":"Highw. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"204","article-title":"Calcined Low-grade Clays as Sources for Zeolite Containing Material","volume":"65","author":"Rakhimova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016277","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001819","article-title":"Influence of Molding Moisture Content and Porosity\/Cement Index on Stiffness, Strength, and Failure Envelopes of Artificially Cemented Fine-Grained Soils","volume":"29","author":"Consoli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Chen, X., Yu, F., Hong, Z.-M., Pan, L.-F., Liu, X.-W., and Li, Y. (2021). Comparative Investigation on the Curing Behavior of GS-Stabilized and Cemented Soils at Macromechanical and Microstructural Scales. J. Test. Eval., 51."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1007\/s42947-020-0003-6","article-title":"Optimization of California bearing ratio of tropical black clay soil treated with cement kiln dust and metakaolin blend","volume":"14","author":"Attah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation (2013). EN 14227-10 Hydraulically Bound Mixtures Specifications. Part 10: Soil Treated by Cement, Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"PCA American\u2019s Cement Manufacturers (2021). Cement Stabilized Subgrade (CSS) Soils, PCA American\u2019s Cement Manufacturers."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016255","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001772","article-title":"Advanced Characteristics of Cement-Treated Materials with respect to Strength Performance and Damage Evolution","volume":"29","author":"Nusit","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.3208\/sandf.51.239","article-title":"Strength Development in Cement Admixed Bangkok Clay: Laboratory and Field Investigations","volume":"51","author":"Horpibulsk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soils Found."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2011.05.017","article-title":"Water content, porosity and cement content as parameters controlling strength of artificially cemented silty soil","volume":"122","author":"Consoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Rios, S., and Viana da Fonseca, A. (2013, January 2\u20136). Porosity\/Cement Index to Evaluate Geomechanical Properties of an Artificial Cemented Soil. Proceedings of the18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Costa, C., Manuppella, G., Clavijo, E., Moniz, C., Dias, R.P., and Machado, S. (2005). Geological Map of Portugal, National Laboratory of Energy and Geology (LNEG)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Antunes, M., Pais, J., and Legoinha, P. (1992). Neogene Deposits of Lisbon and Set\u00fabal Peninsula, Excursion A. Ci\u00eancias da Terra, Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Special number 2."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2016). EN ISO 17892-4 Geotechnical Investigation and Testing\u2014Laboratory Testing of Soil\u2014Part 4: Determination of Particle Size Distribution, International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2016). EN ISO 17892-12 Geotechnical Investigation and Testing\u2014Laboratory Testing of Soil\u2014Part 12: Determination of Liquid and Plastic Limits, International Organization for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (2006). ASTM D 2487-06 Standard Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (2017). AASHTO M 145-91 Standard Specification for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes, American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Gross, J., and Adaska, W. (2020). Guide to Cement-Stabilized Subgrade Soils, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Instituto Portugu\u00eas da Qualidade (2012). NP EN 197-1 Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements, Instituto Portugu\u00eas da Qualidad."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3846\/13923730.2015.1068849","article-title":"Lifetime Prediction of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Carbonation Environments Carbonation Modelling vs Air Permeability Modelling","volume":"23","author":"Faustino","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"American Concrete Institute (2009). Report on Soil Cement, ACI 230.1R-09, American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s10706-015-9888-2","article-title":"Effect of Treatment with Cement on the Mechanical Characteristics of Silt from Telagh Region of Sidi Belabes, Algeria","volume":"33","author":"Ikhlef","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation (2004). EN 13286-50 Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures. Part 50: Method for the Manufacture of Test Specimens of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures Using Proctor Equipment or Vibrating Table Compaction, Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation (2013). EN 13286-41 Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures. Part 41: Test Method for the Determination of the Compressive Strength of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures, Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2013.878413","article-title":"Rubble Stone Masonry Walls Strengthened by Three-Dimensional Steel Ties and Textile-Reinforced Mortar Render, Under Compression and Shear Loads","volume":"9","author":"Pinho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Arch. Herit."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation (2013). EN 13286-43 Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures. Part 41: Test Method for the Determination of the Modulus of Elasticity of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures, Comit\u00e9 Europ\u00e9en de Normalisation."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trgeo.2021.100544","article-title":"Optimum material ratio for improving the performance of cement-mixed soils","volume":"28","author":"Pham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A\u00eftcin, P.-C., and Flatt, R.J. (2016). 2-Phenomenology of cement hydration. Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-100693-1.00002-3"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1080\/19386362.2019.1612134","article-title":"Equations controlling the strength of sedimentary silty soil\u2013cement blends: Influence of voids\/cement ratio and types of cement","volume":"15","author":"Baldovino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Vitali, O. (2008). Effect of the Composition of Soil-Cement Mixtures on Stiffness and Strength Parameters. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Porto]. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trgeo.2014.07.005","article-title":"Control factors for the long term compressive strength of lime treated sandy clay soil","volume":"1","author":"Consoli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Geotech."}],"container-title":["Infrastructures"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2412-3811\/6\/7\/96\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:24:37Z","timestamp":1760163877000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2412-3811\/6\/7\/96"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,26]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["infrastructures6070096"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/infrastructures6070096","relation":{},"ISSN":["2412-3811"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2412-3811","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,26]]}}}