{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T03:34:18Z","timestamp":1777001658341,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]],"date-time":"2022-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Riga Technical University\u2019s Doctoral Grant program","award":["1.1.1.2\/VIAA\/3\/19\/394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1.1.1.2\/VIAA\/3\/19\/394"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund within the Activity 1.1.1.2 \u201cPost-doctoral Research Aid\u201d of the Specific Aid Objective 1.1.1 \u201cTo increase the research and innovative capacity of scientific institutions of Latvia and the ability to attract external financing, investing in human resources and infrastructure\u201d of the Operational Programme \u201cGrowth and Employment\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1.1.1.2\/VIAA\/3\/19\/394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1.1.1.2\/VIAA\/3\/19\/394"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Compos. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is becoming more common in the construction industry nowadays; however, the aspect of durability of printed concrete is not well-studied yet. Frost resistance is a very important factor for durability of concrete structures located in northern regions. Since air-entraining agents (AEAs) are widely used in conventional concrete, this paper focuses on exploring the potential of using AEAs in 3D concrete as well\u2014the main objective is to determine how it affects fresh and hardened properties, including frost resistance of 3D concrete. Three different mixes were printed and cast\u2014the dry mix consisted of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), limestone filler (LF), sand, as well as viscosity modifying agent (VMA) and superplasticizer (SP). Two mixes contained different amounts of AEA, the third one was used as reference. First, fresh state properties were tested\u2014air content, density, and mini cone flow test. Second, 28-day compressive and flexural strength tests were carried out; bulk and particle densities were also determined. Next, both cast and printed concrete samples were subject to freeze\u2013thaw cycles according to provisions of CEN\/TS 12390-9, mass loss due to surface scaling was determined for each sample. As a result, printed concrete samples containing AEA in the amount of 0.06% of binder mass showed the highest frost resistance\u2014addition of AEA decreased both flexural and compressive strength of this printed concrete mix by 30\u201340%. To conclude, the obtained results give an insight of how addition of AEA to printed concrete mix affects its properties both in long and short term. Further research of certain aspects, for instance, the air void system and pore distribution is needed to gain a deeper understanding on how to increase durability of 3D concrete.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs6100281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,28]],"date-time":"2022-09-28T01:51:49Z","timestamp":1664329909000},"page":"281","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["The Effects of Air-Entraining Agent on Fresh and Hardened Properties of 3D Concrete"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Ella","family":"Spurina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"3D Concrete Printing Laboratory, Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, 1 Paula Valdena Street, 1048 Riga, Latvia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2332-1347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maris","family":"Sinka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3D Concrete Printing Laboratory, Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, 1 Paula Valdena Street, 1048 Riga, Latvia"}]},{"given":"Krists","family":"Ziemelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3D Concrete Printing Laboratory, Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, 1 Paula Valdena Street, 1048 Riga, Latvia"}]},{"given":"Andris","family":"Vanags","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"JSC Sakret Holdings, Ropazu nov., Stopinu pag., Rumbula, 2121 Riga, Latvia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3250-5594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana","family":"Bajare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, 6B Kipsalas Street, 1048 Riga, Latvia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, A., Zhumabekova, A., Paul, S.C., and Kim, J.R.A. 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