{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:25:12Z","timestamp":1760059512502,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750291200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Compos. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>With increasing traffic loads and the continuous deterioration of asphalt pavements, it has become necessary to explore alternative materials that enhance both performance and sustainability. This study aims to investigate the effect of using cement kiln dust (CKD) as a filler substitute in hot mix asphalt composites, focusing on the mechanical and durability properties of pavements. The results indicate that replacing conventional filler with CKD in different proportions (1.5%, 3%, 4.5%, and 6%) positively affects the properties of asphalt mixtures. Marshall stability values increased by 58.4% when using 100% CKD, indicating a significant improvement in the mixture\u2019s ability to withstand traffic loads. Flow tests revealed that replacing CKD by up to 50% enhances the flexibility of the mixture, but exceeding this percentage makes the mixture stiffer, which may lead to premature cracking. In terms of moisture sensitivity, incorporating CKD by 25% improves the mixture\u2019s resistance to water damage, while increasing it to 100% reduces this resistance, highlighting the need to improve the adhesion properties of asphalt. Indirect tensile strength tests have confirmed that CKD enhances the cohesion of the mixture, reducing the likelihood of cracking under pressure and contributing to longer pavement life. Based on these results, it is recommended that CKD be used for up to 50% to achieve a balanced combination of strength, flexibility, and moisture resistance, with further studies being needed to evaluate the long-term performance and potential improvements through additional material modifications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs9060312","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T05:08:39Z","timestamp":1750309719000},"page":"312","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of Cement Kiln Dust on the Mechanical and Durability Performance of Asphalt Composites"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6014-866X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anmar","family":"Dulaimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kerbala University, Karbala 56001, Iraq"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK"}]},{"given":"Yasir N.","family":"Kadhim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kerbala University, Karbala 56001, Iraq"}]},{"given":"Hussein Ahmed","family":"Issa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kerbala University, Karbala 56001, Iraq"}]},{"given":"Raghad Ahmed","family":"Hashim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kerbala University, Karbala 56001, Iraq"}]},{"given":"Ghazi Jalal","family":"Kashesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Kerbala University, Karbala 56001, Iraq"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4307-8946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge Miguel de Almeida","family":"Andrade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0484-350X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds Filipe Almeida","family":"Bernardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadhim, Y.N., Abdulrasool, A.T., Dulaimi, A., Pinto, H.A.S., and Bernardo, L.F.A. (2025). Influence of Walnut Shell Ash and Limestone Filler in Hot Mix Asphalt. J. Compos. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs9010022"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gkyrtis, K., and Pomoni, M. (2024). An overview of the recyclability of alternative materials for building surface courses at pavement structures. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14061571"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.103751","article-title":"Porous asphalt pavement design by incorporating recycled coarse aggregate for sustainable urban drainage: An experimental study","volume":"25","author":"Akhtar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.140386","article-title":"Evaluation of waste metallic powder as fine aggregate replacement in Roller compacted concrete: Impact on physical and mechanical properties","volume":"468","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Al Nageim, H., Dulaimi, A., Ruddock, F., and Seton, L. (2016, January 17\u201321). Development of a new cementitious filler for use in fast-curing cold binder course in pavement application. Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Cement Microscopy, Lyon, France."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.117015","article-title":"The development of an eco-friendly cold mix asphalt using wastewater sludge ash","volume":"329","author":"Dulaimi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.28991\/cej-2021-03091757","article-title":"The effect of animal bone ash on the mechanical properties of asphalt concrete","volume":"7","author":"Kadhim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020020","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0131918","article-title":"The influence of using Barley Husk Ash as a filler on the mechanical properties of asphalt","volume":"2743","author":"Kadhim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.007","article-title":"CKD and fly ash blends as an alternative binder for the stabilization of demolition aggregates","volume":"145","author":"Arulrajah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Khafaji, R., Dulaimi, A., Jafer, H., Mashaan, N.S., Qaidi, S., Obaid, Z.S., and Jwaida, Z. (2023). Stabilization of Soft Soil by a Sustainable Binder Comprises Ground Granulated Blast Slag (GGBS) and CKD (CKD). Recycling, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling8010010"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Collins, R.J., and Emery, J. (1983). Kiln Dust-Fly Ash Systems for Highway Bases and Subbases."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddique, R. (2008). Cement Kiln Dust. Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74294-4_11"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2014.11.010","article-title":"Effect of CKD on the low-temperature durability and fatigue life of hot mix asphalt","volume":"110","author":"Modarres","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1089\/ees.2015.0420","article-title":"CKD: Characterization of dust collected in various fields of electrostatic precipitators","volume":"33","author":"Lanzerstorfer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1556\/606.2020.00182","article-title":"Incorporating of CKD in binder course cold asphalt emulsion mixtures","volume":"16","author":"Abdulzahra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pollack Period."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adaska, W.S., and Taubert, D.H. (2008, January 18\u201322). Beneficial uses of CKD. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference Record, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CITCON.2008.24"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kramer, G.W., and Haynes, B.W. (1982). Anion Characterization of Florida Phosphate Rock Mining Materials and US CKD by Ion Chromatography."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"51","article-title":"Effect of using waste cement dust as a mineral filler on the mechanical properties of hot mix asphalt","volume":"9","author":"Ahmed","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ass. Univ. Bull. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Kraszewski, L., and Emery, J. (1981, January 20\u201321). Use of CKD as a filler in asphalt mixes. Proceedings of the ORF\/CANMET Symposium on Mineral Fillers, Toronto, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2006.03.010","article-title":"Utilization of CKD (CKD) in cement mortar and concrete\u2014An overview","volume":"48","author":"Siddique","year":"2006","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dulaimi, A., Al-Busaltan, S., Kadhim, M.A., Al-Khafaji, R., Sadique, M., Al Nageim, H., Ibrahem, R.K., Awrejcewicz, J., Paw\u0142owski, W., and Mahdi, J.M. (2022). A sustainable cold mix asphalt mixture comprising paper sludge ash and CKD. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su141610253"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.09.001","article-title":"Influence of the composition of CKD on its interaction with fly ash and slag","volume":"54","author":"Chaunsali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(99)00262-8","article-title":"Influence of CKD substitution on the mechanical properties of concrete","volume":"30","author":"Shoaib","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121020","article-title":"Evaluation of the performance of iron ore waste as potential recycled aggregate for micro-surfacing type cold asphalt mixtures","volume":"266","author":"Apaza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel-Wahed, T., Dulaimi, A., Shanbara, H.K., and Al Nageim, H. (2022). The impact of CKD and cement on cold mix asphalt characteristics at different climate. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14074173"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000540","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of an Upgrading Cold-Mix Asphalt Using Waste Materials","volume":"24","author":"Atherton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"SCRB State Commission of Roads and Bridges (2003). General Specification for Roads and Bridges."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate (Standard No. ASTM C127-15)."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate (Standard No. ASTM C128-15)."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2014). Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machin (Standard No. ASTM C131-14)."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement (Standard No. ASTM C114-15)."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2017). Standard Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates (Standard No. ASTM C142-17)."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2013). Standard Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials (Standard No. ASTM D5-13)."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2017). Standard Test Method for Ductility of Bituminous Materials (Standard No. ASTM D113-17)."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2020). Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester (Standard No. ASTM D92-20)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021). Standard Test Method for Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball Apparatus) (Standard No. ASTM D36-21)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2020). Standard Test Method for Density of Semi-Solid Bituminous Materials (Pycnometer Method) (Standard No. ASTM D70-20)."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2022). Standard Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum Products (Standard No. ASTM D4057-22)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2018). Standard Test Method for Flakiness Index of Coarse Aggregate (Standard No. ASTM D2007-18)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Ebels, L.-J. (2008). Characterisation of Material Properties and Behaviour of Cold Bituminous Mixtures for Road Pavements, Stellenbosch University."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119918","article-title":"An evaluation of the performance of hot mix asphalt containing calcium carbide residue as a filler","volume":"261","author":"Dulaimi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"e00504","article-title":"Environmental and mechanical impacts of waste incinerated acidic sludge ash as filler in hot mix asphalt","volume":"14","author":"Shishehboran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Method of Test for Determining the Resistance to Plastic Flow of Asphalt Mixtures Using Marshall Apparatus (Standard No. AASHTO T245-15)."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2018). Standard Test Method for Indirect Tensile (IDT) Strength of Bituminous Mixtures (Standard No. ASTM D6931-17)."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2014). Standard Test Method for Effect of Moisture on Asphalt Concrete Mixtures (Standard No. ASTM D4867-14)."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.06.016","article-title":"Moisture damage resistance of hot-mix asphalt made with paper industry wastes as filler","volume":"112","author":"Cano","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"75","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Asphalt Concrete with Crumb Rubber as Partial Replacement for Coarse Aggregate","volume":"28","author":"Mohammed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Niger. J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2006.10.006","article-title":"Effect of asphalt film thickness on the moisture sensitivity characteristics of hot-mix asphalt","volume":"42","author":"Sengoz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012028","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/244\/1\/012028","article-title":"Moisture susceptibility of porous asphalt mixture with Nano silica modified asphalt binder","volume":"244","author":"Masri","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Zaniewski, J., and Viswanathan, A.G. (2006). Investigation of Moisture Sensitivity of Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete. [Ph.D. Thesis, Asphalt Technology Program]."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Solaimanian, M., Harvey, J., Tahmoressi, M., and Tandon, V. (2003, January 4\u20136). Test methods to predict moisture sensitivity of hot-mix asphalt pavements. Proceedings of the Transportation Research Board National Seminar, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"239","article-title":"Enhancing the Indirect Tensile Strength of Thin Hot Mix Asphalt Overlay by Utilizing Waste Materials","volume":"44","author":"Almaali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Libr. Prog.-Libr. Sci. Inf. Technol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022013","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/245\/2\/022013","article-title":"Improving mechanical properties of hot mix asphalt using fibres and polymers in developing countries","volume":"245","author":"Preciado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.159","article-title":"A study of asphalt aging using Indirect Tensile Strength test","volume":"95","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000436","article-title":"Influence of crumb rubber on the indirect tensile strength and stiffness modulus of hot bituminous mixes","volume":"24","author":"Navarro","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"The State Corporation for Roads and Bridges (2003). Standard Specifications for Roads and Bridges, Section R\/9, Hot-Mix Asphaltic Concrete Pavement."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117271","article-title":"Utilization of solid waste materials as alternative fillers in asphalt mixes: A review","volume":"234","author":"Choudhary","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2018.1549325","article-title":"Effect of filler on the bitumen-aggregate adhesion in asphalt mix","volume":"21","author":"Choudhary","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.088","article-title":"The effect of retreated coal wastes as filler on the performance of asphalt mastics and mixtures","volume":"203","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."}],"container-title":["Journal of Composites Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-477X\/9\/6\/312\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:54:41Z","timestamp":1760032481000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-477X\/9\/6\/312"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["jcs9060312"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcs9060312","relation":{},"ISSN":["2504-477X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2504-477X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]}}}