{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:44:44Z","timestamp":1760060684002,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]],"date-time":"2025-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757635200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Compos. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents an effective route for producing functionally graded metal matrix composites with enhanced abrasion wear resistance by incorporating ex situ Fe\u2013WC preforms into austenitic stainless-steel castings. The preforms, produced by cold-pressing mixed WC and Fe powders, were positioned in the desired locations in sand molds and reacted in situ with the molten steel during casting. This process generated a metallurgically bonded reinforcement zone with a continuous microstructural and compositional gradient, characteristic of a Functionally Graded Material (FGM). Near the surface, the microstructure consisted of a martensitic matrix with WC particles and (W,Fe,Cr)6C carbides, while towards the base metal, it transitioned to austenitic dendrites with an interdendritic network of Cr- and W-rich carbides, including (W,Fe,Cr)6C, (Fe,Cr,W)7C3, and (Fe,Cr,W)23C6. Vickers hardness measurements revealed surface-adjacent values (969 \u00b1 72 HV 30) approximately six times higher than those of the base alloy, and micro-abrasion tests demonstrated a 70% reduction in micro-abrasion wear rate in the reinforced zones. These findings show that WC dissolution during casting enables tailored hardness and abrasion wear performance, offering an accessible manufacturing solution for high-demand mechanical environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs9090495","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]],"date-time":"2025-09-12T09:07:15Z","timestamp":1757668035000},"page":"495","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Functionally Graded WC-Reinforced Stainless-Steel Composites via Casting: Microstructure and Wear Performance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8615-7612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aida B.","family":"Moreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7698-5465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura M. M.","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3667-0562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel F.","family":"Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGuire, M.F. (2008). Austenitic Stainless Steels. Stainless Steels for Design Engineers, ASM International.","DOI":"10.31399\/asm.tb.ssde.9781627082860"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Davis, J.R. (1994). ASM Specialty Handbook: Stainless Steels, ASM International."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farrar, J.C.M. (2004). Group E: Standard austenitic stainless steels. The Alloy Tree: A Guide to Low-Alloy Steels, Stainless Steels and Nickel-Base Alloys, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203024010"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.2355\/isijinternational.42.325","article-title":"Decomposition of austenite in austenitic stainless steels","volume":"42","author":"Padilha","year":"2002","journal-title":"ISIJ Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Straffelini, G. (2015). Friction and Wear: Methodologies for Design and Control, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05894-8"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chawla, N., and Chawla, K.K. (2013). Processing. Metal Matrix Composites, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-9548-2"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Totten, G.E. (1992). ASM Handbook-Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, ASM International."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2016.08.004","article-title":"Repair of 304 stainless steel by laser cladding with 316L stainless steel powders followed by laser surface alloying with WC powders","volume":"24","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2011.12.095","article-title":"Structure\u2013property-correlation in laser surface alloyed AISI 304 stainless steel with WC + Ni + NiCr","volume":"536","author":"Anandan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"394","article-title":"Influence of Addition of Tungsten-iron powder on Microstructure of WC\/steel Composite Coatings","volume":"463\u2013464","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmst.2013.03.025","article-title":"Effect of Ni addition on microstructure of matrix in casting tungsten carbide particle reinforced composite","volume":"29","author":"Shan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2017.09.005","article-title":"An in situ synthesis of WC-reinforced iron surface composite was produced by spark plasma sintering and casting","volume":"210","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2005.04.010","article-title":"Impact wear resistance of WC\/Hadfield steel composite and its interfacial characteristics","volume":"260","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szyma\u0144ski, \u0141., Peddeti, K., Bigos, A., Sobczak, J., Sobczak, N., Biegun, K., \u017bak, K., Weitk\u00e4mper, L., Steppuhn, C., and Krishnamoorthy, K. (Ceram. Int., 2025). Comparison of performance properties between composite materials manufactured using in-situ and ex-situ techniques in aspects of wear parts production, Ceram. Int., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2025.08.185"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2025.181260","article-title":"Local composite reinforcements of WC\/Fe-C type obtained in-situ via SHS synthesis in gray cast iron castings","volume":"1034","author":"Olejnik","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"121","article-title":"An Evaluation of WC-Co Tool Tip Scraps Reinforcement in the Hadfield Austenitic Manganese Steel Fabricated In Situ Steel Casting","volume":"12","author":"Purwadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Solid Mech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6732","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-021-05971-2","article-title":"Effect of WC Composition on the Microstructure and Surface Properties of Laser Directed Energy Deposited SS 316-WC Composites","volume":"30","author":"Benarji","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2015.12.111","article-title":"Fabrication of functionally graded materials by introducing wolframium carbide dispersed particles during centrifugal casting and examination of FGM\u2019s structure","volume":"129","author":"Chumanov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vacuum.2015.07.023","article-title":"Functional composite metal for WC-dispersed 304L stainless steel matrix composite with alloying by direct laser: Microstructure, hardness and fracture toughness","volume":"121","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vacuum"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M.M., Lacerda, P., Sousa, R.O., Pinto, A.M.P., and Vieira, M.F. (2020). Preparation and Microstructural Characterization of a High-Cr White Cast Iron Reinforced with WC Particles. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13112596"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2014.38","article-title":"Effect of Cr addition on the microstructure and abrasive wear resistance of WC-reinforced iron matrix surface composites","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M.M., and Vieira, M.F. (2021). Cast Ferrous Alloys Reinforced with WC-Metal Matrix Composites Fabricated by Ex-Situ Methods. Prime Archives in Material Science, Vide Leaf."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2018). Metallic Materials\u2014Vickers Hardness Test\u2014Part 1: Test Method (Standard No. ISO 6507-1)."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2008). Fine Ceramics (Advanced Ceramics, Advanced Technical Ceramics)\u2014Determination of the Abrasion Resistance of Coatings by a Micro-Scale Abrasion Test (Standard No. ISO 26424:2008)."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1179\/mst.1985.1.5.385","article-title":"Structure of centrifugally cast austenitic stainless steels: Part 1 HK 40 as cast and after creep between 750 and 1000 \u00b0C","volume":"1","author":"Honeycombe","year":"1985","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1648(03)00290-4","article-title":"The effect of volume fraction of WC particles on erosion resistance of WC reinforced iron matrix surface composites","volume":"255","author":"Zhou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M.M., Lacerda, P., and Vieira, M.F. (2021). Characterization of Iron-Matrix Composites Reinforced by In Situ TiC and Ex Situ WC Fabricated by Casting. Metals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/met11060862"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2006.07.009","article-title":"Dry three-body abrasive wear behavior of WC reinforced iron matrix surface composites produced by V-EPC infiltration casting process","volume":"262","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2009.09.001","article-title":"Three-body abrasive wear behavior of CC\/high-Cr WCI composite and its interfacial characteristics","volume":"268","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s11249-014-0303-6","article-title":"Interface Structure and Wear Behavior of Cr26 Ferrous Matrix Surface Composites Reinforced with CTCp","volume":"54","author":"Zheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tribol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMR.26-28.293","article-title":"Interfacial Characteristics and Wear Resistance of WCp\/White-Cast-Iron Composites","volume":"26\u201328","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M.M., and Vieira, M.F. (2022). Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel Reinforced with WC Fabricated by Ex Situ Technique. Metals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/met12050713"}],"container-title":["Journal of Composites Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-477X\/9\/9\/495\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:44:24Z","timestamp":1760035464000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2504-477X\/9\/9\/495"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jcs9090495"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcs9090495","relation":{},"ISSN":["2504-477X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2504-477X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,12]]}}}