{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T08:40:08Z","timestamp":1774514408633,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,22]],"date-time":"2019-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1548115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JFB"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D printing of polymers can now be considered as a common processing technology for the development of biomaterials. These can be constituted out of polymeric abiotic material alone or can be co-printed with living cells. However, the adaptive and shape-morphing characteristics cannot be developed with the rigid, pre-determined structures obtained by 3D printing. In order to produce functional engineered biomaterials, the dynamic properties\/characteristics of the living cells must be attained. 4D printing can be envisaged as a route to achieve these goals. This paper intends to give a brief review of the pioneer 4D printing research that has been developed and to present an insight into future research in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb10010009","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]],"date-time":"2019-01-24T03:52:32Z","timestamp":1548301952000},"page":"9","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["4D Printing: The Shape-Morphing in Additive Manufacturing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Ana P.","family":"Piedade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CEMMPRE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luis Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/0302-4598(92)80006-3","article-title":"An electrochemical bienzyme membrane sensor for free cholesterol","volume":"28","author":"Brett","year":"1992","journal-title":"Bioelectrochem. Bioenerg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1002\/pi.1995.210380309","article-title":"Behaviour of catalase immobilised on poly(acrylonitrile)-g.co-hydroxyethyl methacrylate when used in a continuous system","volume":"38","author":"Piedade","year":"1995","journal-title":"Polym. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1002\/pola.1991.080290215","article-title":"Immobilization of catalase on membranes of poly(ethylene)-g-co-acrylic acid and poly(tetrafluoroethylene)-g-co-acrylic acid and their application in hydrogen peroxide electrochemical sensors","volume":"29","author":"Silva","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part A Polym. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"98","article-title":"The application of radiation-induced processed copolymers to biocatalysts immobilization","volume":"35","author":"Silva","year":"1990","journal-title":"Radiat. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8187","DOI":"10.1021\/am402302r","article-title":"Zeta potential, contact angles, and AFM imaging of protein conformation adsorbed on hybrid nanocomposite surfaces","volume":"5","author":"Pinho","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2016.04.109","article-title":"Polymer\/metal nanocomposite coating with antimicrobial activity against hospital isolated pathogen","volume":"379","author":"Carvalho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2015.05.071","article-title":"Silver activation on thin films of Ag-ZrCN coatings for antimicrobial activity","volume":"55","author":"Ferreri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605390","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201605390","article-title":"Ultrafast Digital Printing toward 4D Shape Changing Materials","volume":"29","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4327","article-title":"A kirigami approach to engineering elasticity in nanocomposites through patterned defects","volume":"14","author":"Shyu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2016.2625098","article-title":"Overview on Additive Manufacturing Technologies","volume":"105","author":"Calignano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cad.2014.07.006","article-title":"Cloud-based design and manufacturing: A new paradigm in digital manufacturing and design innovation","volume":"59","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Des."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"704","article-title":"Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses","volume":"39","author":"Ventola","year":"2014","journal-title":"P&T"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cad.2015.04.001","article-title":"The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing in engineering","volume":"69","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Des."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MPUL.2013.2279615","article-title":"New world of 3-D printing offers \u201ccompletely new ways of thinking\u201d","volume":"4","author":"Lipson","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Pulse"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-05196-1","article-title":"3D printed scaffolds of calcium silicate-doped \u03b2-TCP synergize with co-cultured endothelial and stromal cells to promote vascularization and bone formation","volume":"7","author":"Deng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2958","article-title":"3D bioprinting of tissues and organs","volume":"32","author":"Murphy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2243912","article-title":"Bioprinting toward organ fabrication: Challenges and future trends","volume":"60","author":"Ozbolat","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Plastics Today (2018, December 01). FDA Tackles Opportunities, Challenges, of 3D Printed Medical Devices. Available online: http:\/\/www.plasticstoday.com\/articles\/FDA-tackles-opportunities-challenges-3D-printed-medical-devices-140602."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4544","article-title":"Biomimetic 4D printing","volume":"15","author":"Gladman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2017.1341815","article-title":"Investigating the shape memory properties of 4D printed polylactic acid (PLA) and the concept of 4D printing onto nylon fabrics for the creation of smart textiles","volume":"12","author":"Leist","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600628","DOI":"10.1002\/marc.201600628","article-title":"4D Printing of shape memory-based personalized endoluminal medical devices","volume":"38","author":"Zarek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Macromol. Rapid Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-016-9233-9","article-title":"4D printing: Processability and measurement of recovery force in shape memory polymers","volume":"89","author":"Paz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b12824","article-title":"Direct-write fabrication of 4D active shape-changing structures based on a shape memory polymer and its nanocomposite","volume":"9","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2015.1097054","article-title":"3D printing of smart materials: A review on recent progresses in 4D printing","volume":"10","author":"Khoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.18063\/IJB.2016.01.003","article-title":"A perspective on 4D bioprinting","volume":"2","author":"An","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Bioprint."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4067","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201300136","article-title":"Multifunctional up-converting nanocomposites with smart polymer brushes gated mesopores for cell imaging and thermo\/pH dual-responsive drug controlled release","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/J.ENG.2017.05.014","article-title":"Two-way 4D printing: A review on the reversibility of 3D-printed shape memory materials","volume":"3","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603334","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201603334","article-title":"Quantitative predictions of shape-memory effects in polymers","volume":"29","author":"Hornat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24761","DOI":"10.1038\/srep24761","article-title":"3D printed reversible shape changing components with stimuli responsive materials","volume":"6","author":"Mao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600212","DOI":"10.1002\/mame.201600212","article-title":"4D printing of reversible shape morphing hydrogel structures","volume":"302","author":"Naficy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Macromol. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201200458","article-title":"Bio-Origami hydrogel scaffolds composed of photocrosslinked PEG bilayers","volume":"2","author":"Jamal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8643","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9643","article-title":"Multimaterial magnetically assisted 3D printing of composite materials","volume":"6","author":"Kokkinis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2422","article-title":"Multi-shape active composites by 3D printing of digital shape memory polymers","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.piutam.2014.12.021","article-title":"Controlled sequential shape changing components by 3D printing of shape memory polymer multimaterials","volume":"12","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia IUTAM"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13616","DOI":"10.1038\/srep13616","article-title":"Sequential self-folding structures by 3D printed digital shape memory polymers","volume":"5","author":"Mao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28946","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b07388","article-title":"Three-dimensional printing of pH responsive and functional polymers on an affordable desktop printer","volume":"8","author":"Nadgorny","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.09.079","article-title":"Microfabrication of pH-responsive 3D hydrogel structures via two-photon polymerization of high-molecular-weight poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylates","volume":"279","author":"Scarpa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16544","DOI":"10.1038\/srep16544","article-title":"Sequential folding using light-activated polystyrene sheet","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17414","DOI":"10.1038\/srep17414","article-title":"Miniaturized swimming soft robot with complex movement actuated and controlled by remote light signals","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7867","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201502777","article-title":"A graphene-based bimorph structure for design of high performance photoactuators","volume":"27","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285ra64","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3010825","article-title":"Mitigation of tracheobronchomalacia with 3D-printed personalized medical devices in pediatric patients","volume":"7","author":"Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bodagui, M., Damanpack, A.R., and Liao, W.H. (2018). Triple shape polymers by 4D printing. Smart Mater. Strct., 27.","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aabc2a"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, H.G., and Cho, D.W. (2017). 3D printing of organs-on-chip. Bioengineering, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering4010010"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, P., Zhao, J., Zhao, J., Zhang, J., Li, B., Gou, Z., Gou, M., and Li, X. (2018). Bioprinting of skin constructs for wound healing. Burns Trauma, 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s41038-017-0104-x"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mandon, C.A., Blum, L.J., and Marquette, C.A. (2017). 3D-4D printed objects: New bioactive material opportunities. Micromachines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi8040102"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7381","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b18265","article-title":"3D printing of highly stretchable, shape-memory, and self-healing elastomer toward novel 4D printing","volume":"10","author":"Kuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031001","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/aa8114","article-title":"Towards 4D printed scaffolds engineering: Exploiting 3D shape memory polymers to deliver time-controlled stimulus on cultured cells","volume":"9","author":"Hendrikson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.02.068","article-title":"A review of 4D printing","volume":"122","author":"Momeni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1007\/s40684-017-0040-z","article-title":"Review of 4D printing materials and their properties","volume":"4","author":"Shin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Green Technol."}],"container-title":["Journal of Functional Biomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/10\/1\/9\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:27:55Z","timestamp":1760185675000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4983\/10\/1\/9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,22]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jfb10010009"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jfb10010009","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4983"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4983","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,22]]}}}