{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T07:37:22Z","timestamp":1774597042507,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]],"date-time":"2023-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/04527\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04527\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDP\/04527\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04527\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["PTDC\/PSI-GER\/7592\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/PSI-GER\/7592\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This research examines the metacognitive awareness that people have about their reasoning performance in the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). The first two studies compare confidence judgments about the CRT vs. general knowledge (GK) questions. Results show that (1) people are generally able to discriminate between correct and incorrect answers, but this ability is far from perfect, and it is greater for GK questions than for CRT problems. Indeed, and strikingly, (2) incorrect responses to CRT problems are produced with approximately the same level of confidence as correct responses to GK questions. However, (3) even though confidence is high for incorrect responses to CRT problems, it is even higher for correct responses. The results of two additional studies show that these differences in confidence are ultimately related to the conflict that CRT problems pose between intuition and deliberation. These findings have implications for the possibility of implicit error monitoring and dual-process models of overconfidence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence11050081","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,28]],"date-time":"2023-04-28T02:27:56Z","timestamp":1682648876000},"page":"81","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Overconfidence in the Cognitive Reflection Test: Comparing Confidence Resolution for Reasoning vs. General Knowledge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Mata","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035098","article-title":"The diminishing criterion model for metacognitive regulation of time investment","volume":"143","author":"Ackerman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/13546783.2015.1062801","article-title":"Lax monitoring versus logical intuition: The determinants of confidence in conjunction fallacy","volume":"22","author":"Aczel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Thinking & Reasoning"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797615588195","article-title":"When knowledge knows no bounds: Self-perceived expertise predicts claims of impossible knowledge","volume":"26","author":"Atir","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2016.10.014","article-title":"Fast logic?: Examining the time course assumption of dual process theory","volume":"158","author":"Bago","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0963-x","article-title":"The cognitive reflection test is robust to multiple exposures","volume":"50","author":"Bialek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Boland, Sam (2022, November 21). Reflection expanded: Expanding the Cognitive Reflection Task. Available online: https:\/\/pt.scribd.com\/document\/138024235\/Reflection-Expanded-Expanding-the-Cognitive-Reflection-Task."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.3758\/MC.38.2.186","article-title":"In conflict with ourselves? An investigation of heuristic and analytic processes in decision making","volume":"38","author":"Bonner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socec.2019.101455","article-title":"Cognitive reflection test: Whom, how, when","volume":"82","author":"Kujal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2020.1766472","article-title":"Individual differences in logical intuitions on reasoning problems presented under two-response paradigm","volume":"32","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691611429354","article-title":"Bias and conflict: A case for logical intuitions","volume":"7","year":"2012","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-013-0384-5","article-title":"Bats, balls, and substitution sensitivity: Cognitive misers are no happy fools","volume":"20","author":"Rossi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15954","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0015954","article-title":"Biased but in doubt: Conflict and decision confidence","volume":"6","author":"Cromheeke","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-385522-0.00005-6","article-title":"The Dunning\u2013Kruger effect: On being ignorant of one\u2019s own ignorance","volume":"44","author":"Dunning","year":"2011","journal-title":"Advances in Experimental Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"540","article-title":"From words to meaning: A semantic illusion","volume":"20","author":"Erickson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-016-0618-7","article-title":"Analytic and heuristic processes in the detection and resolution of conflict","volume":"44","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, M\u00e1rio. B., Soro, Jer\u00f4nimo C., Reis, Joana, Mata, Andr\u00e9, and Thompson, Valerie A. (2022). When Type 2 Processing Misfires: The Indiscriminate Use of Statistical Thinking about Reasoning Problems. Journal of Intelligence, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence10040109"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.91.5.797","article-title":"Automatic and controlled components of judgment and decision making","volume":"91","author":"Ferreira","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"552","article-title":"Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence","volume":"3","author":"Fischhoff","year":"1977","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1257\/089533005775196732","article-title":"Cognitive reflection and decision making","volume":"19","author":"Frederick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Perspectives"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2017.1313283","article-title":"Individual differences in conflict detection during reasoning","volume":"71","author":"Frey","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2009","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001179","article-title":"Logical intuition is not really about logic","volume":"151","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2023.105417","article-title":"Illusory intuitive inferences: Matching heuristics explain logical intuitions","volume":"235","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(91)90025-F","article-title":"A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory","volume":"30","author":"Jacoby","year":"1991","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.122.2.139","article-title":"Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection","volume":"122","author":"Jacoby","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2015.12.008","article-title":"The Doubting System 1: Evidence for automatic substitution sensitivity","volume":"164","author":"Johnson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Psychologica"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.107.2.384","article-title":"Naive empiricism and dogmatism in confidence research: A critical examination of the hard\u2013easy effect","volume":"107","author":"Juslin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1265","article-title":"Does logic feel good? Testing for intuitive detection of logicality in syllogistic reasoning","volume":"39","author":"Klauer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.124.3.311","article-title":"Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model","volume":"124","author":"Koriat","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"945","article-title":"Subjective confidence in one\u2019s answers: The consensuality principle","volume":"34","author":"Koriat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.2.221","article-title":"Lake Wobegon be gone! The \u201cbelow-average effect\u201d and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments","volume":"77","author":"Kruger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.6.1121","article-title":"Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one\u2019s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments","volume":"77","author":"Kruger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"729","article-title":"Local and global judgments of confidence","volume":"30","author":"Liberman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"155","article-title":"Further tests of the metacognitive advantage model: Counterfactuals, confidence and affect","volume":"28","author":"Mata","year":"2019a","journal-title":"Psychological Topics (Special Issue on Meta-Reasoning)"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1037\/pspa0000170","article-title":"Social metacognition in moral judgment: Decisional conflict promotes perspective taking","volume":"117","author":"Mata","year":"2019b","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1080\/13546783.2019.1611664","article-title":"Metacognition and social perception: Bringing meta-reasoning and social cognition together","volume":"26","author":"Mata","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thinking and Reasoning"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500006215","article-title":"Using metacognitive cues to infer others\u2019 thinking","volume":"9","author":"Mata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Judgment and Decision Making"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2014.07.011","article-title":"The role of language comprehension in reasoning: How \u201cgood enough\u201d representations induce biases","volume":"133","author":"Mata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2013.01.010","article-title":"Reasoning about others\u2019 reasoning","volume":"49","author":"Mata","year":"2013a","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2013.08.001","article-title":"A process-dissociation analysis of semantic illusions","volume":"144","author":"Mata","year":"2013b","journal-title":"Acta Psychologica"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033640","article-title":"The metacognitive advantage of deliberative thinkers: A dual-process perspective on overconfidence","volume":"105","author":"Mata","year":"2013c","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer-Grant, Constatin G., Cruz, Nicole, Singmann, Henrik, Winiger, Samuel, Goswami, Spriha, Hayes, Brett K., and Klauer, Karl Christoph (2022). Are logical intuitions only make-believe? Reexamining the logic-liking effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0001152"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1504\/IJBAF.2014.067629","article-title":"Quantifying overconfidence in experimental finance","volume":"4","author":"Michailova","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Behavioural Accounting and Finance"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.115.2.502","article-title":"The trouble with overconfidence","volume":"115","author":"Moore","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2016.09.010","article-title":"The role of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in inhibition mechanism: A study on cognitive reflection test and similar tasks through neuromodulation","volume":"91","author":"Oldrati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1242-7","article-title":"Dunning\u2013Kruger effects in reasoning: Theoretical implications of the failure to recognize incompetence","volume":"24","author":"Pennycook","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(97)00028-7","article-title":"Overconfidence: Feedback and item difficulty effects","volume":"23","author":"Pulford","year":"1997","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.31577\/sp.2022.03.852","article-title":"Predicting the most common incorrect response: Metacognitive advantage of deliberative over intuitive responders on Cognitive Reflection Test","volume":"64","author":"Erceg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Studia Psychologica"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03202762","article-title":"Test difficulty and judgment bias","volume":"22","author":"Schraw","year":"1994","journal-title":"Memory & Cognition"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.2213","article-title":"Measuring Cognitive Reflection without Maths: Developing and Validation of the Verbal Cognitive Reflection Test","volume":"34","author":"Sirota","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Decision Making"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1080\/13546783.2019.1708793","article-title":"Predicting individual differences in conflict detection and bias susceptibility during reasoning","volume":"27","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thinking and Reasoning"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2011.589381","article-title":"When logic and belief collide: Individual differences in reasoning times support a selective processing model","volume":"23","author":"Stupple","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0186404","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186404","article-title":"Slower is not always better: Response-time evidence clarifies the limited role of miserly information processing in the Cognitive Reflection Test","volume":"12","author":"Stupple","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500007622","article-title":"Investigating an alternate form of the cognitive reflection test","volume":"11","author":"Thomson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Judgment and Decision Making"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037099","article-title":"Arguments, more than confidence, explain the good performance of reasoning groups","volume":"143","author":"Trouche","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s10503-018-9472-z","article-title":"Objective evaluation of demonstrative arguments","volume":"33","author":"Trouche","year":"2019","journal-title":"Argumentation"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci2301_3","article-title":"Not everything is proportional: Effects of age and problem type on propensities for overgeneralization","volume":"23","author":"Bock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Weber, Mel (2022, December 06). The Role of Metacognition and Anxiety in College Students\u2019 Performance on a General-Knowledge Test (Honors Thesis). Available online: https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/7ae5\/ee960a080a62fe15cd9e17fe01265ec1e522.pdf?_ga=2.29673148.2064039678.1582733636-1459196501.1522233394."}],"container-title":["Journal of Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/11\/5\/81\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:24:30Z","timestamp":1760124270000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-3200\/11\/5\/81"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["jintelligence11050081"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jintelligence11050081","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-3200"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-3200","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]}}}