{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T16:33:48Z","timestamp":1778171628231,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,30]],"date-time":"2024-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMSE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Overtopping phenomena and consequent floods cause significant damage to coastal communities. Morphological changes in front of structures during storms can influence their functionality, affecting their stability and leading to failures, impacting the population that are depending on those coastal interventions for their protection. The effect of climate changes, such as sea level rise and increase of the frequency and intensity of storms, can raise the number of overtopping events over defense structures, also increasing coastal morphological changes, challenging future managers, engineers and the scientific coastal communities. A review of morphological changes in front of coastal defense structures and in natural barriers due to overtopping, wave run-down and reflux was conducted. The objective of this review was to find and gather relevant information, sometimes dispersing, reflecting and grouping the concepts found in the literature. Additionally, the gaps in scientific research are addressed, focusing on topics that may be enhanced. Several keywords used in the research were presented, emphasizing the relationship between overtopping and models (physical and numerical), storms, defense structures and morphological changes, also related to wave run-down during storms. The results show that there is limited information available that is mainly related to morphological changes in front of coastal defense structures during storm events, showing an opportunity to develop knowledge.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse13010040","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,31]],"date-time":"2024-12-31T13:26:25Z","timestamp":1735651585000},"page":"40","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A State-of-the-Art Review on Storm Events, Overtopping and Morphological Changes in Front of Coastal Structures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0453-3464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederico","family":"Rom\u00e3o","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RISCO & Department of Civil Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8792-8607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00e1rcia","family":"Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RISCO & Department of Civil Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Porto University Center (CUP), FCNET\u2014Faculty of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technologies, Lus\u00f3fona University, Rua Augusto Rosa, No. 24, 4000-098 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7858-2272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Coelho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RISCO & Department of Civil Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dada, O.A., Almar, R., and Morand, P. (2024). Coastal vulnerability assessment of the West African coast to flooding and erosion. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-48612-5"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A.T., Zimmermann, J., and Nicholls, R.J. (2015). Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding\u2014A Global Assessment. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118571"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lobeto, H., Semedo, A., Lemos, G., Dastgheib, A., Menendez, M., Ranasinghe, R., and Bidlot, J.R. (2024). Global coastal wave storminess. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51420-0"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.173529","article-title":"Nature-based solutions as buffers against coastal compound flooding: Exploring potential framework for process-based modeling of hazard mitigation","volume":"938","author":"Radfar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Sweet, W., Simon, S., Dusek, G., Marcy, D., Brooks, W., Pendleton, M., and Marra, J. (2021). 2021 State of High Tide Flooding and Annual Outlook, NOAA."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2019.104902","article-title":"Social, geomorphic, and climatic factors driving U.S. coastal city vulnerability to storm surge flooding","volume":"181","author":"Helderop","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean. Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tabari, H. (2020). Climate change impact on flood and extreme precipitation increases with water availability. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70816-2"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR029321","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR029321","article-title":"Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Compound Flooding in Coastal River Areas","volume":"57","author":"Willems","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-021-00993-z","article-title":"A global analysis of subsidence, relative sea-level change and coastal flood exposure","volume":"11","author":"Nicholls","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garzon, J.L., Ferreira, O., Reis, M.T., Ferreira, A., Fortes, C.J.E.M., and Z\u00f3zimo, A.C. (2023). Conceptual and quantitative categorization of wave-induced flooding impacts for pedestrians and assets in urban beaches. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-32175-6"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2019.02.001","article-title":"Coastal flooding from wave overtopping sea level rise adaptation in the northeastern, U.S.A","volume":"150","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira JN, C., Oliveira FS, B.F., Neves, M.G., Clavero, M., and Trigo-Teixeira, A.A. (2020). Modeling wave overtopping on a seawall with XBeach, IH2VOF, and mase formulas. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12092526"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2214334120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2214334120","article-title":"Reimagining infrastructure for a biodiverse future","volume":"120","author":"Shudtz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2022.107682","article-title":"Capitalized value of evolving flood risks discount and nature-based solution premiums on property prices","volume":"205","author":"Mutlu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, H., Xu, J., Zhang, S., Li, G., Liu, S., Qiao, L., Yu, Y., and Liu, X. (2022). Field observations of seabed scour dynamics in front of a seawall during winter gales. Front. Mar. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.1080578"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.2112\/JCOASTRES-D-10-00189.1","article-title":"Evolution of coastal defence structures and consequences for beach width trends, Qu\u00e9bec, Canada","volume":"28","author":"Bernatchez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, J.C., Cardona, F.S., Santos, C.J., and Tened\u00f3rio, J.A. (2021). Hazards, vulnerability, and risk analysis on wave overtopping and coastal flooding in low-lying coastal areas: The case of Costa da Caparica, Portugal. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13020237"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2015.08.005","article-title":"Measurements of morphodynamic and hydrodynamic overwash processes in a large-scale wave flume","volume":"113","author":"Matias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2004.05.021","article-title":"The importance of extratropical tropical cyclones on the short-term evolution of barrier islands along the northern Gulf of Mexico, U.S.A","volume":"210","author":"Stone","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"278","article-title":"Another look at the impact of Hurricane Hugo on the shelf coastal resources of Puerto Rico, U.S.A","volume":"10","author":"Webb","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tominaga, Y., Hashimoto, H., and Sakuma, N. (1967, January 11\u201315). Wave rum-up and overtopping on coastal dikes. Proceedings of the Coastal Engineering Conference, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1061\/9780872620087.023"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0029-8018(02)00016-1","article-title":"Wave run-up and overtopping on smooth and rough slopes of coastal structures","volume":"30","author":"Shankar","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3644","DOI":"10.2166\/wcc.2022.211","article-title":"Numerical modelling of breaking wave impact loads on a vertical seawall retrofitted with different geometrical configurations of recurve parapets","volume":"13","author":"Ravindar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Water Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habib, M.A., O\u2019Sullivan, J.J., Abolfathi, S., and Salauddin, M. (2023). Enhanced wave overtopping simulation at vertical breakwaters using machine learning algorithms. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0289318"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Van der Meer, J.W., Allsop, N.W.H., Bruce, T., De Rouck, J., Kortenhaus, A., Pullen, T., Sch\u00fcttrumpf, H., Troch, P., and Zanuttigh, B. (2018). Manual on Wave Overtopping of Sea Defenses and Related Structures. An Overtopping Manual Largely Based on European Research, but for Worldwide Application, Available online: www.overtopping-manual.com."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Y., Wang, W., Kamath, A., and Bihs, H. (2022). Numerical Investigation on Wave-Overtopping at a Double-Dike Defence Structure in Response to Climate Change-Induced Sea Level Rise. Fluids, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/fluids7090295"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lima, M., Coelho, C., and Jesus, F. (2023). Wave Overtopping and Flooding Costs in the Pre-Design of Longitudinal Revetments. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15071434"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, T., Wang, X., Qu, K., and Zhang, L.B. (2023). Hydrodynamic Loads and Overtopping Processes of a Coastal Seawall under the Coupled Impact of Extreme Waves and Wind. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse11112087"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blenkinsopp, C.E., Baldock, T.E., Bayle, P.M., Foss, O., Almeida, L.P., and Schimmels, S. (2022). Remote Sensing of Wave Overtopping on Dynamic Coastal Structures. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030513"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lashley, C.H., Bertin, X., Roelvink, D., and Arnaud, G. (2019). Contribution of infragravity waves to run-up and overwash in the pertuis breton embayment (France). J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse7070205"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2023.114798","article-title":"Numerical modeling of wave overtopping of damaged and upgraded rubble-mound breakwaters","volume":"280","author":"Stagnitti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stagnitti, M., Lara, J.L., Musumeci, R.E., and Foti, E. (2022). Assessment of the variation of failure probability of upgraded rubble-mound breakwaters due to climate change. Front. Mar. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.986993"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2020.103713","article-title":"Advantages of an innovative vertical breakwater with an overtopping wave energy converter","volume":"159","author":"Maza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190016","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2019.0016","article-title":"High-resolution time-dependent probabilistic assessment of the hydraulic performance for historic coastal structures: Application to Luarca Breakwater","volume":"377","author":"Lara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). SWASH user Manual. Delft University of Technology Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Environmental Fluid Mechanics, The Netherlands. Available online: http:\/\/www.tudelft.nl\/swash."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2023.104362","article-title":"Large-scale wave breaking over a barred beach: SPH numerical simulation and comparison with experiments","volume":"185","author":"Altomare","year":"2023","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). SWAN user Manual. Delft University of Technology Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Environmental Fluid Mechanics, The Netherlands. Available online: http:\/\/www.swan.tudelft.nl."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"OpenFoam (2024, October 10). User Guide. ESI Group. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/documentation\/user-guide."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"XBeach (2024, October 10). User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/xbeach.readthedocs.io\/en\/latest\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Luettich, R., and Westerink, J. (2024, October 10). ADCIRC User Manual University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, U.S.A. Available online: https:\/\/adcirc.org\/."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"WAVEWATCH III (2024, October 10). User Manual and System Documentation of WAVEWATCH III, Available online: https:\/\/polar.ncep.noaa.gov\/waves\/wavewatch\/manual.v5.16.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Delft3D (2024, October 10). User Manual: 3D\/2D Modelling Suite for Integral Water Solutions; Deltares, The Netherlands. Hydro-Morphodynamics, Available online: https:\/\/oss.deltares.nl\/web\/delft3d\/manuals."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Sommerfeld, B.G., Kraus, N.C., and Larson, M. (1996). SBEACH-32 Interface User\u2019s Manual, U.S. Army Corps of Engineerings. Final Report."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Hedstr\u00f6m, K.S. (2024, October 10). ROMS User Manual: Technical Manual for a Coupled Sea-Ice\/Ocean Circulation Model (Version 5). College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences University of Alaska Fairbanks. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/kshedstrom\/roms_manual\/blob\/master\/roms_manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). MIKE 21. User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/manuals.mikepoweredbydhi.help\/latest\/MIKE_21.htm."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"CEM (2024, October 10). User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/csdms.colorado.edu\/wiki\/Model:CEM."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Kirby, J.T., Wei, G., Chen, Q., Kennedy, A.B., and Dalrymple, R.A. (1998). FUNWAVE 1.0 Fully Nonlinear Boussinesq Wave Model\u2014Documentation and User Manual, Center for Applied Coastal Research, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Delaware."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"ATA, R., Goeury, C., and Hervouet, J.M. (2014). Telemac Modelling System, 2D Hydrodynamics, USER MANUAL."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). IH2VOF. User Guide. University of Cantabria. University of Cantabria., Available online: https:\/\/ih2vof.ihcantabria.com\/."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, A., Beck, T., Lin, L., Demirbilek, Z., Brown, M., and Li, H. (2024, October 10). CMS-Wave: Coastal Modeling System Draft User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/cirpwiki.info\/images\/6\/67\/CMS_UsersManual_050912.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2024, October 10). COAST2D. Available online: https:\/\/coast2d.wordpress.com\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Lynett, P.J., and Liu, P.L.F. (2008). Modeling Wave Generation, Evolution, and Interaction with Depth-Integrated, Dispersive Wave Equations: COULWAVE Code Manual, Available online: https:\/\/isec.nacse.org\/models\/users_guide\/coulwave."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"TUFLOW (2024). TUFLOW Classic, HPC User Manual, BMT. Build 2018-03-AD."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Coelho, C. (2005). Riscos de Exposi\u00e7\u00e3o de Frentes Urbanas para Diferentes Interven\u00e7\u00f5es de Defesa Costeira. [PhD Thesis, University of Aveiro]. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Jia, Y., and Wang, S.S.Y. (2001). CCHE2D: Two-Dimensional Hydrodynamic and Sediment Transport Model for Unsteady Open Channel Flows over Loose Bed, School of Engineering, The University of Mississippi. Technical Report No. NCCHE-TR-2001-1."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"SOLA-SURF (2024, October 10). User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.oecd-nea.org\/tools\/abstract\/detail\/nesc0651\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"SFINCS (2024, October 10). User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/sfincs.readthedocs.io\/en\/latest\/."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2016.05.009","article-title":"Simulating cross-shore material exchange at decadal scale. Theory and model component validation","volume":"116","author":"Larson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2010.04.005","article-title":"Modelling the effect of wave overtopping on nearshore hydrodynamics and morphodynamics around shore-parallel breakwaters","volume":"57","author":"Du","year":"2010","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2011.12.004","article-title":"A high-order adaptive time-stepping TVD solver for Boussinesq modeling of breaking waves and coastal inundation","volume":"43\u201344","author":"Shi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ocean. Model."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2017.11.002","article-title":"Breaking of ship bores in a Boussinesq-type ship-wake model","volume":"132","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woodruff, I., Kirby, J., Shi, F., and Grilli, S. (2018). Estimating Meteo-Tsunami Occurrences for the US East Coast. Coast. Eng. Proc. Conf., 36.","DOI":"10.9753\/icce.v36.currents.66"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Tehranirad, B., Kirby, J.T., and Shi, F. (2016). Does Morphological Adjustment During Tsunami Inundation Increase Levels of Hazard? Research Report No. CACR-16-02, Center for Applied Coastal Research, Ocean Engineering Laboratory, University of Delaware."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2014.10.002","article-title":"Forces on a vertical wall on a dike crest due to overtopping flow","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2022.112024","article-title":"Wave overtopping at near-vertical seawalls: Influence of foreshore evolution during storms","volume":"261","author":"Briganti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gruwez, V., Altomare, C., Suzuki, T., Streicher, M., Cappietti, L., Kortenhaus, A., and Troch, P. (2020). Validation of RANS modelling for wave interactions with sea dikes on shallow foreshores using a large-scale experimental dataset. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8090650"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2021.102888","article-title":"Simulation of random wave overtopping by a WCSPH model","volume":"116","author":"Altomare","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suzuki, T., Altomare, C., Willems, M., and Dan, S. (2023). Non-Hydrostatic Modelling of Coastal Flooding in Port Environments. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse11030575"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2013.12.007","article-title":"The effects of storm clustering on beach profile variability","volume":"348","author":"Karunarathna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Wong, P.P., Losada, I.J., Gattuso, J.P., Hinkel, J., Khattabi, A., McInnes, K.L., Saito, Y., Sallenger, A., Nicholls, R.J., and Santos, F. (2015). Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas. Climate Change 2014 Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harley, M. (2017). Coastal storm definition. Coastal Storms: Processes and Impacts, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118937099.ch1"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2020.105389","article-title":"Key research issues of coastal storm analysis","volume":"199","author":"Martzikos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean. Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2024, October 12). Glossary of Meteorology of American Meteorological Society. Available online: https:\/\/www.ametsoc.org\/index.cfm\/ams\/publications\/glossary-of-meteorology\/."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Boccotti, P. (2000). Wave Mechanics for Ocean Engineering, Elsevier Science B.V."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2019.103620","article-title":"Storm characterization and simulation for damage evolution models of maritime structures","volume":"156","author":"Cobos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"5","article-title":"Applying joint probabilities and cumulative effects to estimate storm induced erosion and shoreline recession","volume":"69","author":"Cox","year":"2001","journal-title":"Shore Beach"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2078","article-title":"Ensemble prediction of coastal flood risk arising from overtopping by linking meteorological, ocean, coastal and surf zone models","volume":"139","author":"Zou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105001","DOI":"10.1088\/2515-7620\/acfdfa","article-title":"Assessing potential coastal flood exposure along the Port-Bou\u00ebt Bay in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire using the enhanced bathtub model","volume":"5","author":"Kouakou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2006.07.050","article-title":"Wave overtopping at coastal structures: Prediction tools and related hazard analysis","volume":"15","author":"Geeraerts","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2017.09.003","article-title":"Regional assessment of storm related overwash and breaching hazards on coastal barriers","volume":"134","author":"Plomaritis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"890","article-title":"Storm impact scale for barrier islands","volume":"16","author":"Sallenger","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Pullen, T., Allsop, N.W.H., Kortenhaus, A., Sch\u00fcttrumpf, H., and Van der Meer, J.W. (2007). Wave Overtopping of Sea Defenses and Related Structures: Assessment Manual, Available online: www.overtopping-manual.com."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2014.04.007","article-title":"Urban coastal flood prediction: Integrating wave overtopping, flood defenses and drainage","volume":"91","author":"Gallien","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1142\/9789811208003_0001","article-title":"Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management: Third Edition","volume":"Volume 48","author":"Kamphuis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Advanced Series on Ocean Engineering"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4123-2_4","article-title":"Documenting beach loss in front of seawalls in Puerto Rico: Pitfalls of engineering a small island nation shore","volume":"3","author":"Jackson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Coast. Res. Libr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubinato, M., Heyworth, J., and Hart, J. (2020). Protecting coastlines from flooding in a changing climate: A preliminary experimental study to investigate a sustainable approach. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12092471"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Escudero, M., Mendoza, E., and Silva, R. (2020). Micro sand engine beach stabilization strategy at Puerto Morelos, Mexico. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8040247"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2020.103675","article-title":"Reinforcement of vegetated and unvegetated dunes by a rocky core: A viable alternative for dissipating waves and providing protection?","volume":"158","author":"Silva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2024, October 12). Journal of Integrated Coastal Management. Available online: https:\/\/www.aprh.pt\/rgci\/glossario\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2023.114092","article-title":"Numerical simulation of scour at the rear side of a coastal revetment","volume":"275","author":"Senturk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2022.104144","article-title":"Beach profile changes induced by surrogate Posidonia Oceanica: Laboratory experiments","volume":"175","author":"Astudillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019alessandro, F., Tomasicchio, G.R., Frega, F., Leone, E., Francone, A., Pantusa, D., Barbaro, G., and Foti, G. (2022). Beach\u2013Dune System Morphodynamics. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse10050627"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dissanayaka KD, C.R., Tanaka, N., and Hasan, M.K. (2022). Effect of Orientation and Vegetation over the Embankment Crest for Energy Reduction at Downstream. Geosciences, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences12100354"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5831","DOI":"10.3390\/w7105831","article-title":"Experiments and numerical simulations of dike erosion due to a wave impact","volume":"7","author":"Evangelista","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"599","article-title":"Numerical Modeling of Artificial Nourishments on the Beach Profile: Effects on Reducing Dune Overtopping","volume":"113","author":"Coelho","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2019.103529","article-title":"A Genetic Programming based formula for wave overtopping by crown walls and bullnoses","volume":"152","author":"Formentin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e19646","article-title":"Environmental impacts of shore revetment","volume":"9","author":"Saengsupavanich","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e12626","article-title":"Environmental impact of submerged and emerged breakwaters","volume":"8","author":"Saengsupavanich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-022-10666-9","article-title":"Assessing of detached breakwaters and beach nourishment environmental impacts in Italy: A review","volume":"195","author":"Cantasano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-024-01753-5","article-title":"Marsh restoration in front of seawalls is an economically justified nature-based solution for coastal protection","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2024.104144","article-title":"Experimental study on wave attenuation and stability of ecological dike system composed of submerged breakwater, mangrove, and dike under storm surge","volume":"151","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2023JC019845","DOI":"10.1029\/2023JC019845","article-title":"Laboratory Investigation of Hydrodynamic and Sand Dune Morphology Changes Under Wave Overwash","volume":"128","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s13344-022-0015-x","article-title":"Numerical Simulations of Coastal Overwash Using A Phase-Averaged Wave\u2014Current\u2014Sediment Transport Model","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"China Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2019.01.009","article-title":"Bore collapse and wave run-up on a sandy beach","volume":"174","author":"Blenkinsopp","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-9-1223-2021","article-title":"The relative influence of dune aspect ratio and beach width on dune erosion as a function of storm duration and surge level","volume":"9","author":"Itzkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2023.104341","article-title":"Swash-by-swash morphology change on a dynamic cobble berm revetment: High-resolution cross-shore measurements","volume":"184","author":"Bayle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.26748\/KSOE.2022.045","article-title":"Field observation and quasi-3D numerical modeling of coastal hydrodynamic response to submerged structures","volume":"37","author":"Hwang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Ocean Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habib, M.A., Abolfathi, S., O\u2019Sullivan, J.J., and Salauddin, M. (2024). Efficient data-driven machine learning models for scour depth predictions at sloping sea defences. Front. Built Environ., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2024.1343398"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-023-00948-w","article-title":"Data-driven approaches in predicting scour depths at a vertical seawall on a permeable shingle foreshore","volume":"27","author":"Salauddin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2022.106932","article-title":"Experimental modeling of bed morphological changes and toe erosion of emerged breakwaters due to wave-structure interactions in a deltaic coast","volume":"454","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2024.119225","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the mechanism of local scour around a cylindrical coastal pile foundation considering sloping bed conditions","volume":"312","author":"Barrie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2023.101413","article-title":"Detection and quantification of wave trends in the Mediterranean basin","volume":"105","author":"Aristodemo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Chen, H., Peng, C., Wang, Y., and Hu, Y. (2022). Analysis of Factors Influencing Wave Overtopping Discharge from Breakwater Based on an MIV-BP Estimation Model. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14192967"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, M., Huang, W., Jung, S., Oslon, C., Yin, K., and Xu, S. (2024). Evaluating Vegetation Effects on Wave Attenuation and Dune Erosion during Hurricane. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse12081326"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2024.117647","article-title":"Improved prediction of wave overtopping rates at vertical seawalls with recurve retrofitting","volume":"302","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2024.104627","article-title":"Convergence and divergence of storm waves induced by multi-scale currents: Observations and coupled wave-current modeling","volume":"194","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2024.107288","article-title":"Optimizing coastal protection: Nature-based engineering for longitudinal drift reversal and erosion reduction","volume":"256","author":"Vieira","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ocean. Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2023.116590","article-title":"Modeling hurricane wave propagation and attenuation after overtopping sand dunes during storm surge","volume":"292","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ocean. Eng."}],"container-title":["Journal of Marine Science and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/13\/1\/40\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:56:42Z","timestamp":1760115402000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/13\/1\/40"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,30]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jmse13010040"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jmse13010040","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-1312"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-1312","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,30]]}}}