{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T19:23:10Z","timestamp":1777058590009,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT","award":["Tenure 2023. 15937.TENURE.005 (LFR)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Tenure 2023. 15937.TENURE.005 (LFR)"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UID\/04423\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/04423\/2025"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P.","award":["UID\/PRR\/04423\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/PRR\/04423\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMSE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anthropogenic climate change represents a critical and complex threat to the health and resilience of aquatic ecosystems. This review aims to critically synthesise and evaluate the synergetic and antagonistic mechanisms through which rising water temperature, the most prominent climatic factor, modulates the host\u2013parasite relationship. The systematic literature review was conducted across a high-impact database (Web of Science), focusing on the extraction and qualitative analysis of data concerning infection dynamics and both host and parasite interactions. The findings demonstrate that thermal stress imposes a dual penalty on host\u2013parasite systems: (1) it confers a critical thermal advantage to direct-life cycle parasites, significantly accelerating their virulence, reproduction, and infective capacity; (2) simultaneously, it severely compromises the immunocompetence and physiological resilience of piscine hosts, often through immunometabolic trade-offs and inflammatory dysfunction. This toxic synergy is the root cause of the exponential disease prevalence\/intensity of parasites and fish mass mortality events, directly impacting biodiversity and global aquaculture sustainability. In contrast, it may also cause the disruption of the transmission chains to threaten complex life cycle parasites with localised extinction. We conclude that climate mitigation must be urgently recognised and implemented as a primary strategy for biological risk management to secure aquatic health and global food safety.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse14020167","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T09:27:12Z","timestamp":1768296432000},"page":"167","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Climate Change, Fish and Shellfish, and Parasite Dynamics: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3528-9188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Atroch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR LA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research\/Marine and Environmental Research Centre, Associated Laboratory, University of Porto, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Luis Filipe","family":"Rangel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR LA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research\/Marine and Environmental Research Centre, Associated Laboratory, University of Porto, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5579-677X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camilo","family":"Ayra-Pardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR LA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research\/Marine and Environmental Research Centre, Associated Laboratory, University of Porto, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6655-491X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CIIMAR\/CIMAR LA, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research\/Marine and Environmental Research Centre, Associated Laboratory, University of Porto, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brander, K., Cochrane, K., Barange, M., and Soto, D. (2017). Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture. Climate Change Impacts on Fisheries and Aquaculture: A Global Analysis, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119154051.ch3"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Pachauri, R.K., Allen, M.R., Barros, V.R., Broome, J., Cramer, W., Christ, R., Church, J.A., Clarke, L., Dahe, Q., and Dasgupta, P. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x","article-title":"Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity","volume":"15","author":"Bellard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Ojima, R., and Marandola, E. (2013). Mudan\u00e7as Clim\u00e1ticas e as Cidades: Novos e Antigos Debates na Busca da Sustentabilidade Urbana e Social, Editora Blucher."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110100","article-title":"Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change","volume":"37","author":"Parmesan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00141-7","article-title":"Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases","volume":"30","author":"Patz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390490492313","article-title":"Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: A review","volume":"67","author":"Charron","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2013.09.013","article-title":"Environmental change and the dynamics of parasitic diseases in the Amazon","volume":"129","author":"Confalonieri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2015.07.001","article-title":"Climate change, biodiversity, ticks and tick-borne diseases: The butterfly effect","volume":"4","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2006.01.002","article-title":"Climate change and human health: Impacts, vulnerability and public health","volume":"120","author":"Haines","year":"2006","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(97)01072-7","article-title":"Environmental parasitology: What can parasites tell us about human impacts on the environment?","volume":"13","author":"Lafferty","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)68079-3","article-title":"Climate change and human health: Present and future risks","volume":"367","author":"McMichael","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascual, M., and Dobson, A. (2005). Seasonal patterns of infectious diseases. PLoS Med., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0020005"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/31.3.323","article-title":"Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses","volume":"31","author":"Reeves","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-031920-100429","article-title":"Marine Parasites and Disease in the Era of Global Climate Change","volume":"13","author":"Byers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02761993000400014","article-title":"Climatic change in northeastern Brazil: Paleoparasitological data","volume":"88","author":"Araujo","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mem\u00f3rias Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2587","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.0340","article-title":"Global drivers of human pathogen richness and prevalence","volume":"277","author":"Dunn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilx034","article-title":"The impact of global environmental changes on infectious disease emergence with a focus on risks for Brazil","volume":"58","author":"Nava","year":"2017","journal-title":"ILAR J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1590\/S1413-81232012000600002","article-title":"An\u00e1lise dos impactos sociais e \u00e0 sa\u00fade de grandes empreendimentos hidrel\u00e9tricos: Li\u00e7\u00f5es para uma gest\u00e3o energ\u00e9tica sustent\u00e1vel","volume":"17","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ci\u00eancia Sa\u00fade Coletiva"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2017.03.008","article-title":"Water-borne protozoa parasites: The Latin American perspective","volume":"220","author":"Karanis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Short, E.E., Caminade, C., and Thomas, B.N. (2017). Climate change contribution to the emergence or re-emergence of parasitic diseases. Infect. Dis. Res. Treat., 10.","DOI":"10.1177\/1178633617732296"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13215","article-title":"Climate variation influences host specificity in avian malaria parasites","volume":"22","author":"Fecchio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-002-0740-2","article-title":"Parasite communities of freshwater fish under flood conditions","volume":"89","author":"Kadlec","year":"2003","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.27.2.1820","article-title":"The impact of climate change on the parasites and infectious diseases of aquatic animals","volume":"27","author":"Marcogliese","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2011.03.002","article-title":"Frontiers in climate change\u2013disease research","volume":"26","author":"Rohr","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., Shekelle, P., Stewart, L.A., and PRISMA-P-Group (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev., 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"0223","article-title":"Effect of temperature and moisture on nematode root knot","volume":"33","author":"Godfrey","year":"1926","journal-title":"J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.5962\/p.363863","article-title":"The status of the Grey Seal, Halichoerus grypus, in the Northwest Atlantic","volume":"115","author":"Lesage","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can. Field Nat."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1111\/jfd.13330","article-title":"Climate change-driven disease in sympatric hosts: Temporal dynamics of parasite burden and proliferative kidney disease in wild brown trout and Atlantic salmon","volume":"44","author":"Lauringson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Fish Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1111\/fwb.13709","article-title":"Current and projected impacts of the parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (causative to proliferative kidney disease) on Central European salmonid populations under predicted climate change","volume":"66","author":"Ros","year":"2021","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borgwardt, F., Unfer, G., Auer, S., Waldner, K., El-Matbouli, M., and Bechter, T. (2020). Direct and indirect climate change impacts on brown trout in central Europe: How thermal regimes reinforce physiological stress and support the emergence of diseases. Front. Environ. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2020.00059"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12701","article-title":"Parasite infection and decreased thermal tolerance: Impact of proliferative kidney disease on a wild salmonid fish in the context of climate change","volume":"31","author":"Bruneaux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bolin, J.A., Evans, K., Schoeman, D.S., Spillman, C.M., Moore, T.S., Hartog, J.R., Cummins, S.F., and Scales, K.L. (2024). A warming western boundary current increases the prevalenceof commercially disruptive parasites in broadbill swordfish. Fish. Oceanogr., 33.","DOI":"10.1111\/fog.12669"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"da Costa, J.C., de Souza, S.S., Castro, J.C., Amanaj\u00e1s, R.D., and Val, A.L. (2021). Climate change affects the parasitism rate and impairs the regulation of genes related to oxidative stress and ionoregulation of Colossoma macropomum. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01830-1"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"da Costa, J.C., and Val, A.L. (2020). Extreme climate scenario and parasitism affect the Amazonian fish Colossoma macropomum. Sci. Total Environ., 726.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138628"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182025000216","article-title":"Local extinction of a parasite of Magellanic penguins? The effect of a warming hotspot on a \u2018cold\u2019 trematode","volume":"152","author":"Marcotegui","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-020-04818-2","article-title":"Cold water reduces the severity of parasite-inflicted damage: Support for wintertime recuperation in aquatic hosts","volume":"195","author":"Klemme","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-020-01214-8","article-title":"How climate change affects parasites: The case of trematode parasite Clinostomum complanatum and its fish host Trichogaster fasiatus","volume":"44","author":"Rizvi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Parasite Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.15402","article-title":"Climate change facilitates a parasite\u2019s host exploitation via temperature-mediated immunometabolic processes","volume":"27","author":"Scharsack","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Godwin, S.C., Fast, M.D., Kuparinen, A., Medcalf, K.E., and Hutchings, J.A. (2020). Increasing temperatures accentuate negative fitness consequences of a marine parasite. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74948-3"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10452-024-10120-7","article-title":"Effects of climate change on the distribution of Hoplias malabaricus and its ecto- and endoparasite species in South America","volume":"58","author":"Takemoto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquat. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maicher, C., and Le Bailly, M. (2024). The impact of climate change upon intestinal parasites in central Europe during the 4th millennium BCE. Quat. Sci. Rev., 338.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2024.108795"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1007\/s11160-024-09864-0","article-title":"Parasite assemblages as indicators of stability in stock structure of Cynoscion guatucupa (Sciaenidae) after a quarter of century of exploitation in a marine warming hotspot","volume":"34","author":"Lanfranchi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Fish Biol. Fish."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182024001008","article-title":"Influence of body size and environmental conditions on parasite assemblages of the black-spotted croaker (Protonibea diacanthus) (Teleostei: Sciaenidae) in northern Australia","volume":"151","author":"Porter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, C.L., Welicky, R.L., Preisser, W.C., Leslie, K.L., Mastick, N., Greene, C., Maslenikov, K.P., Tornabene, L., Kinsella, T.E., and Essington, T.E. (2023). A reconstruction of parasite burden reveals one century of climate-associated parasite decline. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 120.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2211903120"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5371","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.15305","article-title":"Climate change and ageing in ectotherms","volume":"26","author":"Burraco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2006.02.015","article-title":"Climate-dependent evolution of Antarctic ectotherms: An integrative analysis","volume":"53","year":"2006","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sures, B., Nachev, M., Selbach, C., and Marcogliese, D.J. (2017). Parasite responses to pollution: What we know and where we go in \u2018Environmental Parasitology\u2019. Aquat. Toxicol. Vectors, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2001-3"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-020-1216-4","article-title":"Impacts of multiple stressors on freshwater biota across spatial scales and ecosystems","volume":"4","author":"Birk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2021.05.002","article-title":"How does elevated water temperature affect fish brain? (A neurophysiological and experimental study: Assessment of brain derived neurotrophic factor, cFOS, apoptotic genes, heat shock genes, ER-stress genes and oxidative stress genes)","volume":"115","author":"Topal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1111\/jfb.14599","article-title":"Temperature increase and its effects on fish stress physiology in the context of global warming","volume":"98","author":"Alfonso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franke, A., Beemelmanns, A., and Miest, J.J. (2024). Are fish immunocompetent enough to face climate change?. Biol. Lett., 20.","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2023.0346"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-020-01278-1","article-title":"Energetic, antioxidant, inflammatory and cell death responses in the red muscle of thermally stressed Sparus aurata","volume":"190","author":"Feidantsis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatterjee, S. (2016). Oxidative stress, inflammation, and disease. Oxidative Stress and Biomaterials, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803269-5.00002-4"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2010.09.006","article-title":"Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: How are they linked?","volume":"49","author":"Reuter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2017.07.041","article-title":"The roles of NF-\u03baB and ROS in regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators of inflammation induction in LPS-stimulated zebrafish embryos","volume":"68","author":"Ko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poynter, S., and Dixon, B. (2017). Bony Fish Immunology. Reference Module in Life Sciences, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-809633-8.12178-8"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1006\/fsim.1998.0181","article-title":"The morphology of the immune system in teleost fishes","volume":"9","author":"Press","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2008.07.013","article-title":"Fish immunity and parasite infections: From innate immunity to immunoprophylactic prospects","volume":"126","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filipe, J.F., Herrera, V., Curone, G., Vigo, D., and Riva, F. (2020). Floods, hurricanes, and other catastrophes: A challenge for the immune system of livestock and other animals. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00016"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2016.03.008","article-title":"Natural environmental impacts on teleost immune function","volume":"53","author":"Makrinos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"17","article-title":"State of world aquaculture 2020 and regional reviews: FAO webinar series","volume":"63","author":"Stankus","year":"2021","journal-title":"FAO Aquac. Newsl."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/23308249.2019.1649634","article-title":"Trends in global aquaculture and aquafeed production: 2000\u20132017","volume":"28","author":"Tacon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12164","article-title":"South American fish for continental aquaculture","volume":"10","author":"Gallani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2010.04.006","article-title":"Effect of moderate hypoxia at three acclimation temperatures on stress responses in Atlantic cod with different haemoglobin types","volume":"156","author":"Methling","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2010.04.015","article-title":"Increasing water temperature and disease risks in aquatic systems: Climate change increases the risk of some, but not all, diseases","volume":"40","author":"Karvonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s13258-017-0638-0","article-title":"Temperature-dependent immune response of olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) infected with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV)","volume":"40","author":"Hwang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genes Genom."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.04.013","article-title":"Increasing of temperature induces pathogenicity of Streptococcus agalactiae and the up-regulation of inflammatory related genes in infected Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)","volume":"172","author":"Kayansamruaj","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"De Silva, S.S., and Soto, D. (2009). Climate change and aquaculture: Potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. Climate change implications for fisheries aquaculture: Overview of current scientific knowledge. Climate Change Implications for Fisheries and Aquaculture; FAO Fisheries Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 530, FAO."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Bhanumathi, K., and Sasirekhamani, M. (2024). Sustaining Aquatic Resources: Climatic Changes Impacts and Adaptation Strategies in Aquaculture and Fisheries. PARADIGM SHIFT: Multidisciplinary Research for a Changing World, Red Unicorn Publishing."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Smit, N.J., and Sures, B. (2025). Climate Change and Parasitism in Aquatic Ecosystems, Springer."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04246","article-title":"Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming","volume":"439","author":"Pounds","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"47","article-title":"As migra\u00e7\u00f5es humanas e animais ea introdu\u00e7\u00e3o de parasitas ex\u00f3ticos invasores que afetam a sa\u00fade humana no Brasil","volume":"7","author":"Chame","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Fumdhamentos"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2814","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2012.0110","article-title":"Biodiversity loss decreases parasitediversity: Theory and patterns","volume":"367","author":"Lafferty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02262-6","article-title":"Trematode life cycles: Short is sweet?","volume":"18","author":"Poulin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlson, C.J., Burgio, K.R., Dougherty, E.R., Phillips, A.J., Bueno, V.M., Clements, C.F., Castaldo, G., Dallas, T.A., Cizauskas, C.A., and Cumming, G.S. (2017). Parasite biodiversity faces extinction and redistribution in a changing climate. Sci. Adv., 3.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1602422"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.073668","article-title":"Comparing mechanisms of host manipulation across host and parasite taxa","volume":"216","author":"Lafferty","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00332-0","article-title":"Interactions between monogenean parasites and their fish hosts","volume":"32","author":"Buchmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000808","article-title":"Diseases of cultured marine fishes caused by Platyhelminthes (Monogenea, Digenea, Cestoda)","volume":"142","author":"Ogawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, P.T., and Gregory, D.W.B. (2014). Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture, CABI.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781780642079.0000"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2011.02595.x","article-title":"Some (worms) like it hot: Fish parasites grow faster in warmer water, and alter host thermal preferences","volume":"18","author":"Macnab","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."}],"container-title":["Journal of Marine Science and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/14\/2\/167\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T05:38:31Z","timestamp":1768455511000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/14\/2\/167"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["jmse14020167"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jmse14020167","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-1312"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-1312","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]}}}