{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T19:00:26Z","timestamp":1774465226346,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]],"date-time":"2021-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Cigua (PTDC\/CTA-AMB\/30557\/2017)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Cigua (PTDC\/CTA-AMB\/30557\/2017)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/ Multi\/04326\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/ Multi\/04326\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMSE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Natural high proliferations of toxin-producing microorganisms in marine and freshwater environments result in dreadful consequences at the socioeconomically and environmental level due to water and seafood contamination. Monitoring programs and scientific evidence point to harmful algal blooms (HABs) increasing in frequency and intensity as a result of global climate alterations. Among marine toxins, the okadaic acid (OA) and the related dinophysistoxins (DTX) are the most frequently reported in EU waters, mainly in shellfish species. These toxins are responsible for human syndrome diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Fish, like other marine species, are also exposed to HABs and their toxins. However, reduced attention has been given to exposure, accumulation, and effects on fish of DSP toxins, such as OA. The present review intends to summarize the current knowledge of the impact of DSP toxins and to identify the main issues needing further research. From data reviewed in this work, it is clear that exposure of fish to DSP toxins causes a range of negative effects, from behavioral and morphological alterations to death. However, there is still much to be investigated about the ecological and food safety risks related to contamination of fish with DSP toxins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9030293","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]],"date-time":"2021-03-07T20:20:43Z","timestamp":1615148443000},"page":"293","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Effects of the Marine Biotoxins Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins on Fish"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0677-7713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Corriere","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IPMA\u2014Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Bras\u00edlia, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"CIRSA\u2014Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca per le Scienze Ambientali, Universit\u00e0 di Bologna, Via Sant\u2019Alberto, 163-48100 Ravenna, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8356-5688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luc\u00eda","family":"Soli\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IPMA\u2014Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Bras\u00edlia, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"CCMAR\u2014Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6083-470X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Reis","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IPMA\u2014Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Bras\u00edlia, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"CCMAR\u2014Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4975","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1619575114","article-title":"Ocean warming since 1982 has expanded the niche of toxic algal blooms in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans","volume":"114","author":"Gobler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, T.P., and Mafra, L.L. (2018). Diel variations in cell abundance and trophic transfer of diarrheic toxins during massive Dinophysis bloom in southern Brazil. Toxins, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins10060232"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.05.003","article-title":"Harmful algal blooms and public health","volume":"57","author":"Grattan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2010.00815.x","article-title":"Ocean climate change, phytoplankton community responses, and harmful algal blooms: A formidable predictive challenge","volume":"46","author":"Hallegraeff","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2007.08.001","article-title":"Okadaic acid accumulation in macrofilter feeders subjected to natural blooms of Dinophysis acuminata","volume":"7","author":"Reizopoulou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2013.07.010","article-title":"Toxicological evaluation of microcystins in aquatic fish species: Current knowledge and future directions","volume":"142\u2013143","author":"Pavagadhi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2011.09.011","article-title":"Domoic acid and fish behavior: A review","volume":"13","author":"Lefebvre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3354\/meps284261","article-title":"Domoic acid accumulation in the sardine Sardina pilchardus and its relationship to Pseudonitzschia diatom ingestion","volume":"284","author":"Costa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1111\/faf.12105","article-title":"Impact and effects of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins derived from harmful algal blooms to marine fish","volume":"17","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fish Fish."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(01)00183-0","article-title":"Esterification of DSP toxins by Portuguese bivalves from the Northwest coast determined by LC-MS\u2014A widespread phenomenon","volume":"40","author":"Vale","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2007.05.002","article-title":"Two decades of marine biotoxin monitoring in bivalves from Portugal (1986\u20132006): A review of exposure assessment","volume":"7","author":"Vale","year":"2008","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marenvres.2014.09.009","article-title":"Does the marine biotoxin okadaic acid cause DNA fragmentation in the blue mussel and the pacific oyster?","volume":"101","author":"McCarthy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2011.07.031","article-title":"Damages on mussel farms potentially caused by fish predation\u2014Self service on the ropes?","volume":"319","author":"Karaman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"EFSA (2008). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a Request from the European Commission on Marine Biotoxins in Shellfish\u2014Okadaic Acid and Analogues. EFSA J., 589, 1\u201362."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2011.02.003","article-title":"Esterification of okadaic acid in the mussel Mytilus gallo-provincialis","volume":"57","author":"Rossignoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossen, V., Jourdan-da Silva, N., Guillois-B\u00e9cel, Y., Marchal, J., and Krys, S. (2011). Food poisoning outbreaks linked to mussels contaminated with okadaic acid and ester dinophysistoxin-3 in France, June 2009. Eurosurveillance, 16.","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.16.46.20020-en"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00399a082","article-title":"Okadaic acid, a cytotoxic polyether from two marine sponges of the genus Halichondria","volume":"103","author":"Tachibana","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, T.C.-H., Fong, L.L.-Y., Ho, K.-C., and Lee, F.W.-F. (2016). The mechanism of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxin production in Proro-centrum spp.: Physiological Molecular Perspectives. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8100272"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.2331\/suisan.46.1405","article-title":"Identification of Dinophysis fortii as the causative organism of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning","volume":"46","author":"Yasumoto","year":"1980","journal-title":"Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-32-2-79.1","article-title":"A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase","volume":"32","author":"Hallegraeff","year":"1993","journal-title":"Phycol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.3390\/md12010394","article-title":"Dinophysis Toxins: Causative Organisms, Distribution and Fate in Shellfish","volume":"12","author":"Reguera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.11.005","article-title":"Dinoflagellate polyether within the yessotoxin, pectenotoxin and okadaic acid toxin groups: Characterization, analysis and human health implications","volume":"56","author":"Dominguez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.07.022","article-title":"Subcellular distribution of okadaic acid in the digestive gland of Mytilus galloprovincialis: First evidences of lipoprotein binding to okadaic acid","volume":"55","author":"Rossignoli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9273","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-4039(95)02010-M","article-title":"Two new water soluble DSP toxin derivatives from dinoflagellate Prorocentrum maculosum: Possible storage and excretion products","volume":"36","author":"Hu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2015.06.006","article-title":"2015 Okadaic acid is taken-up into the cells hepatocytes transporter OATP1B3","volume":"83","author":"Ikema","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1191\/096032799678840156","article-title":"Variations in the distribution of okadaic acid in organs and biological fluids of mice related to diarrhoeic syndrome","volume":"18","author":"Matias","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4328","DOI":"10.3390\/md11114328","article-title":"Okadaic Acid: More than a Diarrheic Toxin","volume":"11","author":"Valdiglesias","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-007-9176-5","article-title":"Toxic Prorocentrum lima induces abnormal behavior in juvenile sea bass","volume":"20","author":"Ajuzie","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2017.07.012","article-title":"Embryotoxic effects of dissolved okadaic acid on the development of Longfin yellowtail Seriola rivoliana","volume":"190","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1080\/00364827.2000.10414597","article-title":"The first observation of okadaic acid in flounder in the Baltic Sea","volume":"85","author":"Meriluoto","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sarsia"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-013-0219-9","article-title":"Diarrheic toxins in field-sampled and cultivated Dinophysis spp. cells from southern Brazil","volume":"26","author":"Mafra","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2019.1569265","article-title":"Inter-species variability of okadaic acid group toxicity in relation to the content of fatty acids detected in different marine vectors","volume":"36","author":"Contreras","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam. Part A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3390\/md8010059","article-title":"Effects of Marine Toxins on the Reproduction and Early Stages Development of Aquatic Organisms","volume":"8","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marenvres.2019.04.013","article-title":"Effects of the harmful algae, Alexandrium catenella and Dinophysis acuminata, on the survival, growth, and swimming activity of early life stages of forage fish","volume":"148","author":"Rountos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2018.02.001","article-title":"Does the phycotoxin okadaic acid cause oxidative stress damages and his-tological alterations to seabream (Sparus aurata)?","volume":"144","author":"Souid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2020.151317","article-title":"Sublethal fish responses to short-term food chain transfer of DSP toxins: The role of somatic condition","volume":"524","author":"Neves","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2020.02.022","article-title":"Impaired fish swimming performance following dietary exposure to the marine phycotoxin okadaic acid","volume":"179","author":"Corriere","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-016-0236-5","article-title":"Zebrafish and Medaka: New model organisms for modern biomedical research","volume":"23","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-014-0032-3","article-title":"Microinjection into zebrafish embryos (Danio rerio)\u2014A useful tool in aquatic toxicity testing?","volume":"26","author":"Schubert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpc.2006.07.011","article-title":"The zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo as a model system for identification and characterization of developmental toxins from marine and freshwater microalgae","volume":"145","author":"Berry","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2007.02.008","article-title":"Toxicity to medaka fish embryo development of okadaic acid and crude extracts of Prorocentrum dinoflagellates","volume":"49","author":"Escoffier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2020.1793046","article-title":"Toxicity and differential oxidative stress effects on zebrafish larvae following exposure to toxins from the okadaic acid group","volume":"83","author":"Figueroa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2014.02.005","article-title":"Gene expression profiles in zebrafish (Danio rerio) liver after acute exposure to okadaic acid","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.2174\/1871527314666150821105602","article-title":"Development of a novel and robust pharmacological model of okadaic acid-induced Alzheimer\u2019s disease in zebrafish","volume":"15","author":"Nada","year":"2010","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2018.02.002","article-title":"Lanthionine ketimine-5-ethyl ester provides neuroprotection in a zebrafish model of okadaic acid-induced Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"115","author":"Koehler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2018.10.022","article-title":"The GSK3\u03b2 inhibitor, TDZD-8, rescues cognition in a zebrafish model of okadaic ac-id-induced Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"122","author":"Koehler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.07.013","article-title":"Transfer of microcystin from fresh water lakes to Puget Sound, WA and toxin accumulation in marine mussels (Mytilus trossulus)","volume":"122","author":"Preece","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-5793(90)80245-E","article-title":"Cyanobacterial microcystin-LR is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A from both mammals and higher plants","volume":"264","author":"Mackintosh","year":"1990","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1897\/05-029R.1","article-title":"Effects of microcystins on fish","volume":"25","author":"Malbruck","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/10937400802545151","article-title":"Microcystin Dynamics in Aquatic Organisms","volume":"12","author":"Martins","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142362","article-title":"Rapid freshwater discharge on the coastal ocean as a mean of long distance spreading of an unprecedented toxic cyanobacteria bloom","volume":"754","author":"Kruk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012576","article-title":"Evidence for a novel marine harmful algal bloom: Cyanotoxin (microcystin) transfer from land to sea otters","volume":"5","author":"Miller","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-009-9999-y","article-title":"Initial impacts of Microcystis aeruginosa blooms on the aquatic food web in the San Francisco Estuary","volume":"637","author":"Lehman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrobiology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Pace, R., Vita, V., Bucci, M.S., Gallo, P., and Bruno, M. (2014). Microcystin contamination in sea mussel farms from the Italian southern Adriatic coast following cyanobacterial blooms in the artificial reservoir. J. Ecosyst., 11.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/374027"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3354\/ame01419","article-title":"Effect of temperature on production of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and pectenotoxin-2 by Dinophysis acuminata in culture experiments","volume":"60","author":"Kamiyama","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquat. Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hattenrath-Lehmann, T.K., Marcoval, M.A., Mittlesdorf, H., Goleski, J.A., Wang, Z., Haynes, B., Morton, S.L., and Gobler, C.J. (2015). Nitrogenous Nutrients Promote the Growth and Toxicity of Dinophysis acuminata during Estuarine Bloom Events. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124148"}],"container-title":["Journal of Marine Science and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/9\/3\/293\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:34:20Z","timestamp":1760160860000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/9\/3\/293"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jmse9030293"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jmse9030293","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-1312"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-1312","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,7]]}}}