{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T22:10:44Z","timestamp":1775859044421,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-032170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-032170"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMSE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The offshore wind is the sector of marine renewable energy with the highest commercial development at present. The margin to optimise offshore wind foundations is considerable, thus attracting both the scientific and the industrial community. Due to the complexity of the marine environment, the foundation of an offshore wind turbine represents a considerable portion of the overall investment. An important part of the foundation\u2019s costs relates to the scour protections, which prevent scour effects that can lead the structure to reach the ultimate and service limit states. Presently, the advances in scour protections design and its optimisation for marine environments face many challenges, and the latest findings are often bounded by stakeholder\u2019s strict confidential policies. Therefore, this paper provides a broad overview of the latest improvements acquired on this topic, which would otherwise be difficult to obtain by the scientific and general professional community. In addition, this paper summarises the key challenges and recent advances related to offshore wind turbine scour protections. Knowledge gaps, recent findings and prospective research goals are critically analysed, including the study of potential synergies with other marine renewable energy technologies, as wave and tidal energy. This research shows that scour protections are a field of study quite challenging and still with numerous questions to be answered. Thus, optimisation of scour protections in the marine environment represents a meaningful opportunity to further increase the competitiveness of marine renewable energies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9030297","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T12:12:18Z","timestamp":1615205538000},"page":"297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Scour Protections for Offshore Foundations of Marine Energy Harvesting Technologies: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8549-3320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiago","family":"Fazeres-Ferradosa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Chambel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Taveira-Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3768-3314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Rosa-Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Francisco V. C.","family":"Taveira-Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"IHRH\u2014Hydraulics and water Resources Institute, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0930-6658","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gianmaria","family":"Giannini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Energy Research Group, CIIMAR\u2014Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4400-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environmental Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Piet","family":"Haerens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HAEDES bv, Kortewagenstraat 53B, 9230 Wetteren-ten-Ede, Belgium"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Matutano, C. (2013). Caracterizati\u00f3n de los Sistemas de Protecci\u00f3n Baseados en Materiales Naturales Destinados al Control de la Socavaci\u00f3n en Obras Mar\u00edtimas Presentes en Instalaciones E\u00f3licas Marinas. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2013.08.041","article-title":"Uncertainties in the design of support structures and foundations for offshore wind turbines","volume":"63","author":"Negro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Fazeres-Ferradosa, T. (2018). Reliability Analysis Applied to the Optimization of Dynamic Scour Protections for Offshore Windfarm Foundations. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Porto]."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"104","article-title":"A review of reliability analysis of scour protections","volume":"172","author":"Chambel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Marit. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.09.080","article-title":"Key challenges and prospects for large wind turbines","volume":"53","author":"McKenna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"WindEurope (2017). Wind Energy in Europe: Scenarios for 2030, WindEurope."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morthorst, P.E., and Kitzing, L. (2016). Economics of Building and Operating Offshore Wind Farms. Offshore Wind Farms: Technologies, Design and Operation, Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-100779-2.00002-7"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2013.01.048","article-title":"Scour predictions and scour protections in offshore wind farms","volume":"57","author":"Matutano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Challenges in Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines","volume":"1","author":"Bhattacharya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Technol. Ref."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Chambel, J. (2019). Analysis of Long-Term Damage of Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Porto]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2018.04.035","article-title":"Probabilistic Design and Reliability Analysis of Scour Protections for Offshore Windfarms","volume":"91","author":"Vanem","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schendel, A., Goseberg, N., and Schlurmann, T. (2014, January 15\u201320). Experimental study on the performance of coarse grain materials as scour protection. Proceedings of the Coastal Engineering\u201434th International Conference on Costal Engineering, Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.9753\/icce.v34.structures.58"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, M., De Vos, L., Arboleda Chavez, C.E., Stratigaki, V., Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Rosa-Santos, P., Taveira-Pinto, F., and Troch, P. (2020). Large Scale Experimental Study of the Scour Protection Damage Around a Monopile Foundation Under Combined Wave and Current Conditions. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8060417"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakar, A., and Gudmestad, O. (2017, January 25\u201330). Bottom Supported Tension Leg Tower for Offshore Wind Turbines. Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Artic Engineering, Volume 10: Ocean Renewable Energy, Trondheim, Norway.","DOI":"10.1115\/OMAE2017-61009"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2020.107896","article-title":"Numerical investigation on the dynamic responses of three integrated concepts of offshore wind and wave energy converter","volume":"217","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2020.103671","article-title":"Extended characterization of damage in rubble mound scour protections","volume":"158","author":"Welzel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4018018","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000470","article-title":"Hydro- and Morpho-dynamics induced by a vertical slender pile under regular an-d random waves","volume":"144","author":"Corvaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.10.014","article-title":"Marine Renewable Energy","volume":"150","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"6","article-title":"Scour protection around a single slender pile exposed to waves","volume":"36","author":"Corvaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng. Proc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s40868-019-00068-x","article-title":"Combined solutions to reduce scour around complex foundations: An experimental study","volume":"15","author":"Vahdati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Syst. Ocean Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Taveira-Pinto, F., Rosa-Santos, P., and Chambel, J. (2019). Probabilistic comparison of static and dynamic failure criteria of scour protections. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse7110400"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2011.02.001","article-title":"Empirical design of scour protections around monopile foundations. Part 1: Static approach","volume":"58","author":"Troch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2011.11.001","article-title":"Empirical design of scour protections around monopile foundations. Part 2: Dynamic approach","volume":"60","author":"Troch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Schendel, A. (2018). Wave-Current-Induced Scouring Processes and Protection by Widely Graded Material. [Ph.D. Thesis, Leibniz University Hannover]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"De Vos, L. (2008). Optimisation of Scour Protection Design for Monopiles and Quantification of Wave Run-Up\u2014Engineering the Influence of an Offshore Wind Turbine on Local Flow Conditions. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ghent]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Den Boon, J.H., Sutherland, J., Whitehouse, R., Soulsby, R., Stam, C.J.M., Verhoeven, K., H\u00f8gedal, M., and Hald, T. (2004, January 22\u201325). Scour behaviour and scour protection for monopile foundations of offshore wind turbines. Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference & Exhibition, London, UK."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Soulsby, R. (1997). Dynamics of Marine Sands: A Manual for Practical Applications, Thomas Telford."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esteban, M.D., L\u00f3pez-Guti\u00e9rrez, J.-S., Negro, V., and Sanz, L. (2019). Riprap Scour Protection for Monopiles in Offshore Wind Farms. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse7120440"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumer, M.B., and Freds\u00f8e, J. (1997). Hydrodynamics around Cylindrical Structures, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812795748"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Whitehouse, R. (1998). Scour at Marine Structures: A Manual for Practical Applications, Thomas Telford."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"European Comission, CORDIS EU Research Results (2004). Fifth Research and Technological Development Framework Programme 2002\u20132004, EU Comission."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2010.09.007","article-title":"The nature of scour development and scour protection at offshore windfarm foundations","volume":"62","author":"Whitehouse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Van der Meer, J.W. (1998). Rock Slopes and Gravel Beaches under Wave Attack, Delft Hydraulics."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Schoesitter, P., Audenart, S., Baelus, L., Bolle, A., Brown, A., das Neves, L., Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Haerens, P., Taveira-Pinto, F., and Troch, P. (2014, January 8\u201313). Feasibility of a dynamically stable rock armour layer scour protection for offshore wind farms. Proceedings of the International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Artic Engineering, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/OMAE2014-24426"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whitehouse, R., Brown, A., Audenaert, S., Bolle, A., de Schoesitter, P., Haerens, P., Baelus, L., Troch, P., das Neves, L., and Ferradosa, T. (2014, January 2\u20134). Optimising scour protection stability at offshore foundations. Scour and Erosion. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Perth, Australia.","DOI":"10.1201\/b17703-79"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"11","article-title":"Physical modelling of dynamic scour protections: Analysis of the damage number","volume":"171","author":"Reis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Mar. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000321","article-title":"Erosion Stability of Wide-Graded QuarryStone Material Under Unidirectional Current","volume":"142","author":"Schendel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsrc.2017.07.002","article-title":"Influence of reversing currents on the erosion stability and bed degradation of widely graded grain material","volume":"33","author":"Schendel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sediment Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petersen, T., Nielsen, A., Hansen, D.A., Christensen, E., and Fredsoe, J. (2019, January 5\u20138). Stability of single-graded scour protection around a monopile in current. Proceedings of the Scour and Erosion IX\u20139th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, ICSE 2018, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429020940-10"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2015.03.010","article-title":"Sinking of armour layer around a vertical cylinder exposed to waves and current","volume":"100","author":"Nielsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, A.W., and Petersen, T.U. (2018). Onset of Motion of Sediment underneath Scour Protection around a Monopile. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse6030100"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raaijmakers, T.C., van Oeveren, M.C., Rudolph, D., Leenders, V., and Sinjou, W.C.P. (2010, January 7\u201310). Field Performance of Scour Protection around Offshore Monopiles. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Scour and Erosion (ICSE-5), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1061\/41147(392)41"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freds\u00f8e, J., and Deigaard, R. (1992). Mechanics of Coastal Sediment Transport, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812385314"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2020.103751","article-title":"Scour around a monopile induced by directionally spread irregular waves in combination with oblique currents","volume":"161","author":"Schendel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Sutherland, J., and Whitehouse, R. (1998). Scale Effects in the Physical Modelling of Seabed Scour, HR Wallingford."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9429(1998)124:6(639)","article-title":"Scale Effects in Pier-Scour Experiments","volume":"124","author":"Ettema","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydraul. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arboleda Chavez, C.E., Stratigaki, V., Wu, M., Troch, P., Schendel, A., Welzel, M., Villanueva, R., Schlurmann, T., De Vos, L., and Kisacik, D. (2019). Large-Scale Experiments to Improve Monopile Scour Protection Design Adapted to Climate Change\u2014The PROTEUS Project. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12091709"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welzel, M., Schendel, A., Schlurmann, T., and Hildebrandt, A. (2019). Volume-Based Assessment of Erosion Patterns around a Hydrodynamic Transparent Offshore Structure. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12163089"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, L., Draper, S., and An, H. (2014). A review of Recent Advances in Numerical Modelling of Local Scour Problems. Scour and Erosion, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b17703"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2012.09.001","article-title":"Flow and bed shear stresses in scour protections around a pile in a current","volume":"72","author":"Nielsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1680\/maen.2011.164.4.159","article-title":"Sinking of armour layer around a cylinder exposed to a current","volume":"Volume 164","author":"Nielsen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Maritime Engineering, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 2011"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arboleda, C.E., Wu, M., Troch, P., and Stratigaki, V. (2018, January 5\u20138). Development and validation of a numerical model of scour protection around monopiles under currents. Proceedings of the Scour and Erosion IX\u20139th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429020940-94"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2013.11.004","article-title":"Investigation on the porous media equations and resistance coefficients for coastal structures","volume":"84","author":"Jensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3116003","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000361","article-title":"Modelling the interaction of water waves with porous coastal structures","volume":"142","author":"Losada","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2013.08.010","article-title":"Three-dimensional interaction of waves and porous coastal structures using OpenFOAM\u00ae. Part I: Formulation and validation","volume":"83","author":"Higuera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2018.02.007","article-title":"Effect of scour on the structural response of an offshore wind turbine supported on tripod foundation","volume":"73","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1002\/we.2187","article-title":"Scour influence on the fatigue life of operational monopile-supported offshore wind turbines","volume":"21","author":"Rezaei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wind Energy"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"43","article-title":"A fatigue damage evaluation using local damage parameters for an offshore structure","volume":"Volume 173","author":"Correia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Themed Issue on Renewable Energy and Oceanic Structures: Part IV, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Maritime Engineering, 2020"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"725","article-title":"Experimental modelling of the effects of scour on offshore wind turbine monopile foundations","volume":"1","author":"Mayall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Model. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Mayall, R. (2019). Monopile Response to Scour and Scour Protection. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oxford]."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020033","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000587","article-title":"Flume Tank Testing of Offshore Wind Turbine Dynamics with Foundation Scour and Scour Protection","volume":"146","author":"Mayall","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2013.08.020","article-title":"An investigation of the changes in the natural frequency of a pile affected by scour","volume":"332","author":"Prendergast","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.12989\/sss.2015.16.4.667","article-title":"Scour-monitoring techniques for offshore foundations","volume":"16","author":"Park","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Whitehouse, R., Harris, J., Sutherland, J., and Rees, J. (2008, January 5\u20137). An assessment of Field Data for Scour at Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Scour and Erosion in Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1061\/41147(392)47","article-title":"Scour Monitoring and Scour Protection Solution for Offshore Gravity Based Foundations","volume":"Volume 210","author":"Bolle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scour and Erosion"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baelus, L., Bolle, A., and Szengel, V. (2019, January 5\u20138). Long term scour monitoring around offshore jacket foundations on a sandy seabed. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429020940-55"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petersen, T. (2014). Scour around offshore wind turbine foundations. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Denmark].","DOI":"10.1201\/b17703-78"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Raaijmakers, T.C., Rudolph, D., Bergen, M.R., and Lieshout, H.V. (April, January 31). Evaluation of performance of scour protection and edge scour development. Proceedings of the European Offshore Wind Conf. and Exhibition, Brussels, Belgium."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porter, K., Simons, R., Harris, J., and Ferradosa, T.F. (2012, January 1\u20136). Scour development in complex sediment beds. Proceedings of the 33rd Coastal Engineering Conference, Santander, Spain.","DOI":"10.9753\/icce.v33.sediment.3"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marstruc.2013.06.001","article-title":"Study on a new method for installing a monopile and a fully integrated offshore wind turbine structure","volume":"33","author":"Sarkar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Struct."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Ng, C., and Ran, L. (2016). Assembly, Transportation, Installation and Commissioning of Offshore Wind Farms. Offshore Wind Farms. Technologies, Design and Operation, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2018.12.073","article-title":"Reconversion of offshore oil and gas platforms into renewable energy sites production: Assessment of different scenarios","volume":"135","author":"Leporini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2019.103515","article-title":"Scour development around a jacket structure in combined waves and current conditions compared to monopile foundations","volume":"152","author":"Welzel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Bolle, A., de Winter, J., Goossens, W., Haerens, P., and Dewaele, G. (2012, January 27\u201331). Scour monitoring around offshore jackets and gravity based foundations. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Epsilon Associates Inc (2021, January 03). Vineyard Wind Project\u2014Construction and Operations. Volume III Appendices. Massachusetts, Available online: https:\/\/www.boem.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/renewable-energy-program\/State-Activities\/MA\/Vineyard-Wind\/Vineyard-Wind-COP-Volume-III-Appendix-III-K.pdf."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Sarmiento, J., Iturrioz, A., Guanche, R., Ojanguren, T., and \u00c1vila, A. (2019, January 13). Experimental modelling of scour protection for jacket foundations. Proceedings of the IV Marine Energy Week, Bilbao, Spain."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Van Velzen, G., and Bruinsma, N. (2021, January 03). Scour Development and Conceptual Scour Protection Layout at HKZ Hollandse Alpha and Beta. Deltares. Available online: https:\/\/www.tennet.eu\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/Our_Grid\/Offshore_Netherlands\/Memo_Scour_protection_Hollandse_Kust__zuid__Alpha_Beta.pdf."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Van Velzen, G., Riezebos, H., and Bruinsma, N. (2021, January 03). Borssele OHVS\u2014Scour and Scour Protection. Physical Modelling Test Programme. Deltares. Available online: https:\/\/www.tennet.eu\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/Our_Grid\/Offshore_Netherlands\/Memo_Scour_protection_Hollandse_Kust__zuid__Alpha_Beta.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse2030551","article-title":"Study of Hard and Soft Countermeasures for Scour Protection of the Jacket-Type Offshore Wind Turbine Foundation","volume":"2","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mar. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Sonneville, B., Van Velzen, G., and Wigaard, J. (2014, January 8\u201313). Design and optimization of scour protection for offshore wind platform DolWin Beta. Proceedings of the ASME 2014 33rd International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Ocean Renewable Energy, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/OMAE2014-23154"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"19","article-title":"Gravity Base Foundations for the Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm","volume":"115","author":"Peire","year":"2009","journal-title":"Terra Aqua"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"143","article-title":"Evaluating scour at marine gravity foundations","volume":"164","author":"Whitehouse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Mar. Eng."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Tavouktsoglou, N. (2018). Scour and Scour Protection around Gravity-Based Foundations. [Ph.D. Thesis, University College London]."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Stahlmann, A., and Schlurmann, T. (July, January 30). Physical modeling of scour around tripod foundation structures for offshore wind energy converters. Proceedings of the International Conference on Coastal Engineering 32, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Harris, J.M., and Whitehouse, R. (2014, January 2\u20134). Marine scour: Lessons from nature\u2019s laboratory. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Perth, Australia."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2019.02.081","article-title":"The CECO Wave Energy Converter: Recent Developments","volume":"139","author":"Ramos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2019.04.189","article-title":"Fully nonlinear analysis incorporating viscous effects for hydrodynamics of an oscillating wave surge converter with nonlinear power take-off system","volume":"179","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Xie, L., and Su, T.-C. (2020). Scour Protection Effects of a Geotextile Mattress with Floating Plate on a Pipeline. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12083482"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.03.110","article-title":"Wave energy device and breakwater integration: A review","volume":"77","author":"Mustapa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosa-Santos, P., Taveira-Pinto, F., Clemente, D., Cabral, T., Fiorentin, F., Belga, F., and Morais, T. (2019). Experimental Study of a Hybrid Wave Energy Converter Integrated in a Harbor Breakwater. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse7020033"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2020.103754","article-title":"Experimental investigation into 3D scour processes around a gravity based Oscillating Water Column Wave Energy Converter","volume":"161","author":"Lancaster","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.08.105","article-title":"Methods for predicting seabed scour around marine current turbine","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"12057","article-title":"Potential Scour for Marine Current Turbines Based on Experience of Offshore Wind Turbine","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-0321(03)00079-0","article-title":"A \u201csleeper\u201d awakes: Tidal current power","volume":"7","author":"Charlier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2020.108396","article-title":"A feasibility study of reducing scour around monopile foundation using a tidal current turbine","volume":"220","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giannini, G., Temiz, I., Rosa-Santos, P., Shahroozi, Z., Ramos, V., G\u00f6teman, M., Engstr\u00f6m, J., Day, S., and Taveira-Pinto, F. (2020). Wave Energy Converter Power Take-Off System Scaling and Physical Modelling. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8090632"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2020.118845","article-title":"Evaluation of the annual electricity production of a hybrid breakwater-integrated wave energy converter","volume":"213","author":"Cabral","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy"}],"container-title":["Journal of Marine Science and Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/9\/3\/297\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:34:41Z","timestamp":1760160881000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-1312\/9\/3\/297"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["jmse9030297"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jmse9030297","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-1312"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-1312","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]}}}