{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T03:34:25Z","timestamp":1778816065221,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":279,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FEDER\u2014Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional funds","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007274"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007274"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese funds","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007274"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007274"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JoF"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biological particles, along with inorganic gaseous and particulate pollutants, constitute an ever-present component of the atmosphere and surfaces. Among these particles are fungal species colonizing almost all ecosystems, including the human body. Although inoffensive to most people, fungi can be responsible for several health problems, such as allergic fungal diseases and fungal infections. Worldwide fungal disease incidence is increasing, with new emerging fungal diseases appearing yearly. Reasons for this increase are the expansion of life expectancy, the number of immunocompromised patients (immunosuppressive treatments for transplantation, autoimmune diseases, and immunodeficiency diseases), the number of uncontrolled underlying conditions (e.g., diabetes mellitus), and the misusage of medication (e.g., corticosteroids and broad-spectrum antibiotics). Managing fungal diseases is challenging; only four classes of antifungal drugs are available, resistance to these drugs is increasing, and no vaccines have been approved. The present work reviews the implications of fungal particles in human health from allergic diseases (i.e., allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, severe asthma with fungal sensitization, thunderstorm asthma, allergic fungal rhinosinusitis, and occupational lung diseases) to infections (i.e., superficial, subcutaneous, and systemic infections). Topics such as the etiological agent, risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment will be revised to improve the knowledge of this growing health concern.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jof9030381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T06:56:48Z","timestamp":1679381808000},"page":"381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Clinical Manifestations of Human Exposure to Fungi"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5785-7521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"i3S\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Ipatimup\u2014Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Rua J\u00falio Amaral de Carvalho 45, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Diana","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CRN\u2014Unidade de Reabilita\u00e7\u00e3o AVC, Centro de Reabilita\u00e7\u00e3o do Norte, Centro Hospitalar de Vila Nova de Gaia\/Espinho, Avenida dos Sanat\u00f3rios 127, 4405-565 Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8247-8902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen","family":"Lisboa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servi\u00e7o de Microbiologia, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Servi\u00e7o de Dermatologia, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Tecnologias e Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9738-8210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Boechat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Tecnologias e Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Servi\u00e7o de Imunologia B\u00e1sica e Cl\u00ednica, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2375-9071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Tecnologias e Servi\u00e7os de Sa\u00fade, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Servi\u00e7o de Imunologia B\u00e1sica e Cl\u00ednica, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Imunologia, Servi\u00e7o de Patologia Cl\u00ednica, Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, Alameda Prof. Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-010-2448-z","article-title":"Main airborne Ascomycota spores: Characterization by culture, spore morphology, ribosomal DNA sequences and enzymatic analysis","volume":"86","author":"Oliveira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. 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