{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T10:27:00Z","timestamp":1777285620006,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":206,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,16]],"date-time":"2022-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647388800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Advancements in the development of computer-aided decision (CAD) systems for clinical routines provide unquestionable benefits in connecting human medical expertise with machine intelligence, to achieve better quality healthcare. Considering the large number of incidences and mortality numbers associated with lung cancer, there is a need for the most accurate clinical procedures; thus, the possibility of using artificial intelligence (AI) tools for decision support is becoming a closer reality. At any stage of the lung cancer clinical pathway, specific obstacles are identified and \u201cmotivate\u201d the application of innovative AI solutions. This work provides a comprehensive review of the most recent research dedicated toward the development of CAD tools using computed tomography images for lung cancer-related tasks. We discuss the major challenges and provide critical perspectives on future directions. Although we focus on lung cancer in this review, we also provide a more clear definition of the path used to integrate AI in healthcare, emphasizing fundamental research points that are crucial for overcoming current barriers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12030480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,16]],"date-time":"2022-03-16T22:09:58Z","timestamp":1647468598000},"page":"480","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Towards Machine Learning-Aided Lung Cancer Clinical Routines: Approaches and Open Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3069-2282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FCUP\u2014Faculty of Science, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1681-2436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tania","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"In\u00eas","family":"Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"ICBAS\u2014Abel Salazar Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5591-1579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Morgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7162-414X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cl\u00e1udia","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FMUP\u2014Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Mafalda","family":"Malafaia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Joana","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Fonseca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Eduardo","family":"Negr\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Flor de Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5392-2808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Correia da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ant\u00f3nio J.","family":"Madureira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FMUP\u2014Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Isabel","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FMUP\u2014Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7132-4094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FMUP\u2014Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"i3S\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"IPATIMUP\u2014Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Venceslau","family":"Hespanhol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CHUSJ\u2014Centro Hospitalar e Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FMUP\u2014Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3458-7693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Cunha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"UTAD\u2014University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6193-8540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9lder P.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FCUP\u2014Faculty of Science, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.2419","article-title":"Global epidemiology of lung cancer","volume":"85","author":"Barta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. 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