{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T10:53:26Z","timestamp":1774954406730,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FEDER\u2014Fundo Europeu de Desenvolimento Regional","award":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FEDER\u2014Fundo Europeu de Desenvolimento Regional","award":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FEDER\u2014Fundo Europeu de Desenvolimento Regional","award":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese funds","award":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese funds","award":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese funds","award":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/4255\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RISE\u2014LA\/P\/0053\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IF\/00092\/2014\/CP1255\/CT0004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JPM"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review analyzes the controversies surrounding lidocaine (LIDO), a widely recognized local anesthetic, by exploring its multifaceted effects on pain control in the perioperative setting. The article critically analyzes debates about lidocaine\u2019s efficacy, safety, and optimal administration methods. While acknowledging its well-documented analgesic attributes, the text highlights the ongoing controversies in its application. The goal is to provide clinicians with a comprehensive understanding of the current discourse, enabling informed decisions about incorporating lidocaine into perioperative protocols. On the other hand, emphasizes the common uses of lidocaine and its potential role in personalized medicine. It discusses the medication\u2019s versatility, including its application in anesthesia, chronic pain, and cardiovascular diseases. The text recognizes lidocaine\u2019s widespread use in medical practice and its ability to be combined with other drugs, showcasing its adaptability for individualized treatments. Additionally, it explores the incorporation of lidocaine into hyaluronic acid injections and its impact on pharmacokinetics, signaling innovative approaches. The discussion centers on how lidocaine, within the realm of personalized medicine, can offer safer and more comfortable experiences for patients through tailored treatments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm13121699","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T03:25:31Z","timestamp":1702265131000},"page":"1699","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["A Review of the Lidocaine in the Perioperative Period"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Abigail","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3062-0281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Mour\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Surgery and Physiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1283-1042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno","family":"Vale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PerMed Research Group, Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS), Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"CINTESIS@RISE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Professor Hern\u00e2ni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Community Medicine, Health Information and Decision (MEDCIDS), Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Rua Doutor Pl\u00e1cido da Costa, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3181fcef48","article-title":"LIDO: The origin of a modern local anesthetic","volume":"113","author":"Gordh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-018-0955-x","article-title":"Perioperative use of intravenous LIDO","volume":"78","author":"Beaussier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4091","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S328228","article-title":"Topical LIDO for chronic pain treatment","volume":"15","author":"Voute","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2021.102733","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of LIDO","volume":"69","author":"Karnina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2023, August 13). Available online: https:\/\/pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/compound\/Lidocaine."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Beecham, G.B., Nessel, T.A., and Goyal, A. (2022). LIDO, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2023, August 15). Available online: https:\/\/www.uspharmacist.com\/article\/morphine-sulfate-swish-and-swallow-44276."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.7861\/fhj.2022-0051","article-title":"Perioperative medicine","volume":"9","author":"Wall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Future Health J."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2023, October 25). Available online: https:\/\/www.longdom.org\/scholarly\/perioperative-care-journals-articles-ppts-list-1504.html."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"CD012624","article-title":"Pre-emptive and preventive opioids for postoperative pain in adults undergoing all types of surgery","volume":"2018","author":"Doleman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Libr."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Torp, K.D., Metheny, E., and Simon, L.V. (2022). LIDO Toxicity, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"e23310","article-title":"LIDO infusion: An antiarrhythmic with neurologic toxicities","volume":"14","author":"Daraz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbz087","article-title":"Deep learning for drug-drug interaction extraction from the literature: A review","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-014-1786-7","article-title":"Drug-drug interaction software in clinical practice: A systematic review","volume":"71","author":"Roblek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Chee, B.W., Berlin, R., and Schatz, B. (2011). AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings, American Medical Informatics Association."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2004.02244.x","article-title":"Classifying drug interactions","volume":"58","author":"Aronson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1097\/ACO.0000000000000878","article-title":"Opioid free anesthesia: Feasible?","volume":"33","author":"Chia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2023, October 24). Electronic Medicines Compendium. Available online: https:\/\/www.medicines.org.uk\/emc\/product\/290\/pil#gref."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.2344\/0003-3006(2006)53[98:EOLAP]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Essentials of local anesthetic pharmacology","volume":"53","author":"Becker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anesth. Prog."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.2344\/0003-3006-59.2.90","article-title":"Local anesthetics: Review of pharmacological considerations","volume":"59","author":"Becker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anesth. Prog."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12290","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.0c00530","article-title":"Amide bond bioisosteres: Strategies, synthesis, and successes","volume":"63","author":"Kumari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19898","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000019898","article-title":"A review of the mechanism of the central analgesic effect of LIDO","volume":"99","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2019.06.014","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of action of systemic LIDO in acute and chronic pain: A narrative review","volume":"123","author":"Hermanns","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernatoniene, J., Sciupokas, A., Kopustinskiene, D.M., and Petrikonis, K. (2023). Novel drug targets and emerging pharmacotherapies in neuropathic pain. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15071799"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, August 15). Chemistry 212 Laboratory Synthesis of LIDO. Available online: https:\/\/www.cerritos.edu\/chemistry\/chem_212\/Documents\/Lab\/10_LIDO.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2023, August 15). The 2-Step Synthesis of LIDO Review. Available online: https:\/\/people.chem.umass.edu\/mcdaniel\/CHEM-267\/Experiments\/LIDO.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt1978246654","article-title":"Lidocaine and its active metabolites","volume":"24","author":"Narang","year":"1978","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2023, September 20). INDICE.eu\u2014Toda a Sa\u00fade. Available online: https:\/\/www.indice.eu\/pt\/medicamentos\/DCI\/lidocaina\/informacao-geral."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2023, August 17). Tua Sa\u00fade. Available online: https:\/\/www.tuasaude.com\/cloridrato-de-lidocaina\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, September 20). Estrat\u00e9gia de Uso da Lidoca\u00edna nos Hospitais. Available online: https:\/\/www.bing.com\/search?q=estrat%C3%A9gia+de+uso+da+lidoca%C3%ADna+nos+hospitais&toWww=1&redig=A09E9E33ACEB4354BF0D3DF00287397D."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2023, August 22). CardioPapers. Available online: https:\/\/cardiopapers.com.br\/bulario-lidocaina\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.5935\/2238-3182.20150057","article-title":"Lidocaine: Analysis of the intravenous use to mitigate the cardiovascular reflexes of laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation","volume":"25","author":"Silva","year":"2015","journal-title":"RMMG"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scioli Montoto, S., and Ruiz, M.E. (2022). Intravenous Bolus and Infusion. The ADME Encyclopedia 2022, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-84860-6_97"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000001527","article-title":"Perioperative use of intravenous lidocaine","volume":"126","author":"Dunn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EH-Haj, B.M. (2021). Metabolic N-dealkylation and N-oxidation are elucidators of alkylamino moieties\u2019 role in drugs acting at various receptors. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26071917"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-020-00923-2","article-title":"Comprehensive review of topical analgesics for chronic pain","volume":"25","author":"Maloney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2023, August 29). Anesthesia Key. Available online: https:\/\/aneskey.com\/common-nerve-blocks\/."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2125.1998.00829.x","article-title":"The lignocaine metabolite (MEGX) liver function test and P-450 induction in humans: MEGX test and P-450 induction","volume":"46","author":"Reichel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.2746\/042516408X284664","article-title":"Serum concentrations of LIDO and its metabolites after prolonged infusion in healthy horses","volume":"40","author":"Dickey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjae.2019.10.002","article-title":"Basic pharmacology of local anesthetics","volume":"20","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"BJA Educ."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mechanisms of myofascial pain","volume":"2014","author":"Jafri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Sch. Res. Not."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"34","article-title":"Understanding the hysteresis loop conundrum in pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamic relationships","volume":"17","author":"Louizos","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. Publ. Can. Soc. Pharm. Sci. Soc. Can. Sci. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S3982","article-title":"Local anesthetic failure associated with inflammation: Verification of the acidosis mechanism and the hypothetic participation of inflammatory peroxynitrite","volume":"1","author":"Tsuchiya","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2023, August 22). Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/pro\/lidocaine-and-dextrose-intraspinal.html."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000006580","article-title":"Perioperative LIDO infusions and pain measurements: Effect size matters","volume":"137","author":"Nelson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1080\/17425255.2023.2227556","article-title":"The influence of cardiopulmonary bypass on pediatric pharmacokinetics","volume":"19","author":"Tibboel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1727553","article-title":"Comparative analysis of different local anesthetic solutions available in market: An in vitro and clinical study","volume":"15","author":"Imran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-198916050-00002","article-title":"Clinical pharmacokinetics of epidural and spinal anaesthesia","volume":"16","author":"Burm","year":"1989","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2023, August 22). DailyMed, Available online: https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/fda\/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=d1509740-f9f1-44e3-8fde-51d8683fcd87&type=display."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zrad089","DOI":"10.1093\/bjsopen\/zrad089","article-title":"How long to wait after local infiltration anaesthesia: Systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Bajwa","year":"2023","journal-title":"BJS Open."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1080\/19336950.2017.1380758","article-title":"Distribution and function of voltage-gated sodium channels in the nervous system","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Channels"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00052.2017","article-title":"The role of voltage-gated sodium channels in pain signaling","volume":"99","author":"Bennett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199402000-00018","article-title":"Systemic lidocaine blocks nerve injury-induced hyperalgesia and nociceptor-driven spinal sensitization in the rat","volume":"80","author":"Abram","year":"1994","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X113119990042","article-title":"Potassium channels in peripheral pain pathways: Expression, function and therapeutic potential","volume":"11","author":"Du","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566418","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2020.566418","article-title":"K+ channels in primary afferents and their role in nerve injury-induced pain","volume":"14","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"504","article-title":"Regulation of voltage-gated calcium channels by proteolysis","volume":"64","author":"Abele","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bentham Science Publisher Bentham Science Publisher (2013). Pharmacological inhibition of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels for chronic pain relief. Curr. Neuropharmacol., 11, 606\u2013620.","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X11311060005"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2757","article-title":"Transient receptor potential channels: Targeting pain at the source. Nature Reviews","volume":"8","author":"Patapoutian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pmbts.2015.01.002","article-title":"Sensory TRP Channels","volume":"131","author":"Mickle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2019.00141","article-title":"Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: An emerging role in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"12","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.5483\/BMBRep.2013.46.6.121","article-title":"Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs): Therapeutic targets for neurological diseases and their regulation","volume":"46","author":"Kweon","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMB Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2174\/138161212799040529","article-title":"The G-protein coupled receptor family: Actors with many faces","volume":"18","author":"Liapakis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033583513000061","article-title":"Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the structural basis of neuromuscular transmission: Insights. Torpedopostsynaptic membranes","volume":"46","author":"Unwin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. Rev. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1097\/FBP.0b013e328349aae4","article-title":"The complex role of serotonin and 5-HT receptors in chronic pain","volume":"22","author":"Bardin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000000585","article-title":"Lidocaine preferentially inhibits the function of purinergic P2X7 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes","volume":"120","author":"Okura","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2009.08.062","article-title":"Toll-like receptors and innate immunity","volume":"388","author":"Kumar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bista, Imlach (2019). Pathological mechanisms and therapeutic targets for trigeminal neuropathic pain. Medicines, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines6030091"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1124\/pharmrev.122.000583","article-title":"Positive allosteric modulators of Glycine receptors and their potential use in pain therapies","volume":"74","author":"Gallagher","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1213\/01.ANE.0000219593.15109.DB","article-title":"Lidocaine inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cationic amino acid transporter-2 transcription in activated Murine macrophages may involve voltage-sensitive Na+ channels","volume":"102","author":"Huang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.2147\/LRA.S154512","article-title":"Local anesthetic systemic toxicity: Current perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Pawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Local Reg. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koo, C.H., Shin, H.J., Han, S.H., and Ryu, J.H. (2020). LIDO vs. Other local anesthetics in the development of transient neurologic symptoms (TNS) following spinal anesthesia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9020493"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"782","article-title":"LIDO: A local anesthetic, its adverse effects and management","volume":"57","author":"Bahar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2023, August 23). Lidocaine Hydrochloride and EPINEPHrine Injection USP. Available online: https:\/\/pdf.hres.ca\/dpd_pm\/00065511.PDF."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1986.141","article-title":"Character of adverse effects of prophylactic LIDO in the coronary care unit","volume":"40","author":"Rademaker","year":"1986","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2023, August 22). LIDO Side Effects. Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/sfx\/LIDO-side-effects.html."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2020.04.036","article-title":"Propofol and lidocaine for ERCP: Two is better than one?","volume":"92","author":"Adamsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2018.06.019","article-title":"Intravenous infusion of lidocaine significantly reduces propofol dose for colonoscopy: A randomized placebo-controlled study","volume":"121","author":"Forster","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abd.2019.09.025","article-title":"Safety of local anesthetics","volume":"95","author":"Cherobin","year":"2020","journal-title":"An. Bras. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-98-2-174","article-title":"The cimetidine-lidocaine interaction","volume":"98","author":"Knapp","year":"1983","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb1978.11.785","article-title":"Effects of cimetidine on lidocaine distribution in rats","volume":"11","author":"Shibasaki","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Pharmacobio-Dyn."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-96-5-592","article-title":"Increased toxicity and reduced clearance of lidocaine by cimetidine","volume":"96","author":"Feely","year":"1982","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1590\/S0034-70942001000500010","article-title":"Beta-bloqueadores em anestesiologia: Aspectos farmacol\u00f3gicos e cl\u00ednicos","volume":"51","author":"Bosco","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. De Anestesiol."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2023, September 13). Lidocaine. Available online: https:\/\/go.drugbank.com\/drugs\/DB00281."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-016-2260-8","article-title":"Effect of LIDO with and without epinephrine on lymphatic contractile activity in mice in vivo","volume":"30","author":"Kwon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"63","article-title":"Digital block with or without the addition of epinephrine in the anesthetic solution","volume":"66","author":"Quinto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Braz. J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Scully, C. (2014). Scully\u2019s Medical Problems in Dentistry, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2023, August 23). Eletronics Medicine Compendium. Available online: https:\/\/www.medicines.org.uk\/emc\/product\/2397\/smpc."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"1","article-title":"What is the evidence to support clonidine as an adjuvant analgesic?","volume":"19","author":"Carr","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pract. Pain. Manag."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3181aae897","article-title":"Clonidine as an adjuvant to local anesthetics for peripheral nerve and plexus blocks","volume":"111","author":"Elia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"(2023, September 13). DrugBank. Available online: https:\/\/go.drugbank.com\/drugs\/DB01232."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2023, September 13). National HIV Curriculum. Available online: https:\/\/www.hiv.uw.edu\/page\/treatment\/drugs\/saquinavir."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"(2023, September 13). Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/interactions-check.php?drug_list=434-0,1464-0."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"997","article-title":"Methemoglobin levels during epidural anesthesia for renal transplantation--comparison of prilocaine with bupivacaine","volume":"19","author":"Berksun","year":"2008","journal-title":"Middle East J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"(2023, September 14). Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/interactions-check.php?drug_list=786-0,1464-0."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002162","article-title":"Relevance of the drug\u2013drug interactions between lidocaine and the pharmacokinetic enhancers ritonavir and cobicistat","volume":"33","author":"Dekkers","year":"2019","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"(2023, September 14). Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/interactions-check.php?drug_list=272-0,1464-0."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200969080-00009","article-title":"Atazanavir: A review of its use in the management of HIV-1 infection","volume":"69","author":"Croom","year":"2009","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"869","article-title":"Propafenone: A new antiarrhythmic agent","volume":"7","author":"Chow","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-6576.1998.tb04978.x","article-title":"Intrathecally, Caine may dis-Able. Reflections on lidocaine for spinal anesthesia","volume":"113","author":"Severinghaus","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/S0952-8180(00)00186-0","article-title":"Should intrathecal lidocaine be used in the 21st century?","volume":"12","author":"Gaiser","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1089\/jpm.2006.0209","article-title":"Intravenous lidocaine: An outdated or underutilized treatment for pain?","volume":"10","author":"McCleane","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Palliat. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"513","article-title":"Intravenous lidocaine. Best Practice & Research","volume":"31","author":"Estebe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, I.W.S., and Schraag, S. (2022). The use of intravenous lidocaine in perioperative medicine: Anaesthetic, analgesic and immune-modulatory aspects. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11123543"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.H., Kang, D.W., Choi, G.W., Lee, S.B., Lee, S., and Cho, H.Y. (2021). Evaluation of lidocaine and metabolite pharmacokinetics in hyaluronic acid injection. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13020203"}],"container-title":["Journal of Personalized Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/13\/12\/1699\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:36:26Z","timestamp":1760132186000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4426\/13\/12\/1699"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["jpm13121699"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm13121699","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4426"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4426","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]]}}}