{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T01:30:45Z","timestamp":1770341445817,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]],"date-time":"2020-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JSAN"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Population growth and climate change lead agricultural cultures to face environmental degradation and rising of resistant diseases and pests. These conditions result in reduced product quality and increasing risk of harmful toxicity to human health. Thus, the prediction of the occurrence of diseases and pests and the consequent avoidance of the erroneous use of phytosanitary products will contribute to improving food quality and safety and environmental land protection. This study presents the design and construction of a low-cost IoT sensor mesh that enables the remote measurement of parameters of large-scale orchards. The developed remote monitoring system transmits all monitored data to a central node via LoRaWAN technology. To make the system nodes fully autonomous, the individual nodes were designed to be solar-powered and to require low energy consumption. To improve the user experience, a web interface and a mobile application were developed, which allow the monitored information to be viewed in real-time. Several experimental tests were performed in an olive orchard under different environmental conditions. The results indicate an adequate precision and reliability of the system and show that the system is fully adequate to be placed in remote orchards located at a considerable distance from networks, being able to provide real-time parameters monitoring of both tree and the surrounding environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan9030044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]],"date-time":"2020-09-21T08:18:01Z","timestamp":1600676281000},"page":"44","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Low-Cost IoT Remote Sensor Mesh for Large-Scale Orchard Monitorization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Leonor","family":"Varandas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marqu\u00eas d\u2019\u00c1vila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marqu\u00eas d\u2019\u00c1vila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1691-1709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Gaspar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marqu\u00eas d\u2019\u00c1vila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Centre for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Martim","family":"Aguiar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marqu\u00eas d\u2019\u00c1vila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"C-MAST\u2014Centre for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2019, October 16). Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/portugal\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Olive Council (2019, November 11). Olive Oil\u2014Provisional Data 2018\/19 Crop Year. Available online: https:\/\/www.internationaloliveoil.org\/olive-oil-provisional-data-2018-19-crop-year\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berg, H., Maneas, G., and Engstr\u00f6m, A.S. (2018). A comparison between organic and conventional olive farming in Messenia, Greece. Horticulturae, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae4030015"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Putinja, I. (2020, September 17). Organic Olive Cultivation Increasing Worldwide. Available online: https:\/\/www.oliveoiltimes.com\/business\/organic-olive-cultivation-increasing-worldwide\/67492."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2005.09.003","article-title":"Wireless sensors in agriculture and food industry\u2014Recent development and future perspective","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1699(99)00074-5","article-title":"Pl@nteInfo: A web-based system for personalized decision support in crop management","volume":"25","author":"Jensen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2015.08.011","article-title":"Wireless sensor networks for agriculture: The state-of-the-art in practice and future challenges","volume":"118","author":"Ojha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2009.06.016","article-title":"A wireless sensor network for precision viticulture: The NAV system","volume":"69","author":"Matese","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhargava, K., Kashyap, A., and Gonsalves, T.A. (2014, January 2). Wireless sensor network based advisory system for Apple Scab prevention. Proceedings of the 2014 Twentieth National Conference on Communications (NCC), Kanpur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/NCC.2014.6811263"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1817","article-title":"Intelligent Agricultural Forecasting System Based on Wireless Sensor","volume":"8","author":"Liang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Netw."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kassim, M.R.M., Mat, I., and Harun, A.N. (2014, January 7\u20139). Wireless Sensor Network in precision agriculture application. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Computer, Information and Telecommunication Systems (CITS), Jeju, Korea."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2017.11.042","article-title":"A system for the monitoring and predicting of data in precision agriculture in a rose greenhouse based on wireless sensor networks","volume":"121","author":"Grilo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"13","article-title":"Research and prospect of solarinsecticidal lamps internet of things","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Agric."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, F., Shu, L., Huang, K., Li, K., Han, G., and Liu, Y. (2020). A partition-based node deployment strategy in solar insecticide lamp Internet of Things. IEEE Internet Things J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2996514"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Ferrer, M.T.M., Nobre, T., Gkisakis, V., Warlop, F., Olivares, J., and Pascual, S. (2020). EIP-AGRI Focus Group \u2018Pests and diseases of the olive tree\u2019 Biodiversity and pest management. Olive Fly Management through Symbiosis-Based Strategies: Looking for Trojan Horse Candidates, EIP-AGRI Focus Group, European Commission. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Mendes, F., and Cavaco, M. (2017). Prote\u00e7\u00e3o Integrada da Cultura da Oliveira, Dire\u00e7\u00e3o Geral de Alimenta\u00e7\u00e3o e Veterin\u00e1ria (DGAV). (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"6","article-title":"Oliveiras\u2014Divulga\u00e7\u00e3o de uma cole\u00e7\u00e3o da FAO","volume":"34","author":"Lima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oleovitis\/Olivicultura"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Cordeiro, A.M., and In\u00eas, C.S.F. (2020, August 05). O Ciclo Anual da Oliveira, a Fenologia e as Pr\u00e1ticas Culturais no Olival. Oleovitis\/Olivicultura. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.03.004","article-title":"A survey on LPWA technology: LoRa and NB-IoT","volume":"3","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.12.005","article-title":"A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment","volume":"5","author":"Mekki","year":"2019","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2019, October 02). LoRa Alliance. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/lorawan-for-developers."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, J., Clausen, T.H., Townsley, W.M., and Augustin, A. (2016). A Study of LoRa: Long Range & Low Power Networks for the Internet of Things. MDPI Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091466"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2015). A Technical Overview of LoRa\u00ae and LoRaWANTM, LoRa Alliance."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpro.2017.12.004","article-title":"Long-short range communication network leveraging LoRa TM and wake-up receiver","volume":"56","author":"Ait","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microprocess. Microsyst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varsier, N., and Schwoerer, J. (2017, January 21\u201325). Capacity Limits of LoRaWAN Technology for Smart Metering Applications. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996383"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynders, B., and Pollin, S. (2016, January 22\u201322). Chirp Spread Spectrum as a Modulation Technique for Long Range Communication. Proceedings of the 2016 Symposium on Communications and Vehicular Technologies (SCVT), Mons, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCVT.2016.7797659"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2016.7721743","article-title":"Long-Range Communications in Unlicensed Bands: The Rising Stars in the IoT and Smart City Scenarios","volume":"23","author":"Centenaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2017). LoRaWAN Security. Full End\u2013to\u2013End Encryption for IoT Application Providers, LoRa Alliance (Gemalto Actility and Semtech)."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Cichonski, J., Marron, J., Hastings, N., Ajmo, J., and Rufus, R. (2019). Security for IoT Sensor Networks\u2014Building Management Systems Case Study."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, H., Ivanov, R., Phan, L.T.X., Sokolsky, O., Weimer, J., and Lee, I. (2018, January 17\u201320). LogSafe: Secure and Scalable Data Logger for IoT Devices. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/ACM Third International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and Implementation (IoTDI), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoTDI.2018.00023"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Calero, J.A.G. (2009). Control de Enfermedades Causadas porMicroorganismos. Sostenibilidad de la Producci\u00f3n de Olivar en Andaluc\u00eda, Junta de Andaluc\u00eda, Consejer\u00eda de Agricultura y Pesca."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Barranco, D., Fern\u00e1ndez-Escobar, R., and Rallo, L. (2017). Enfermedades. El Cultivo del Olivo, Mundi-Prensa Madrid Spain."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1094\/PDIS-06-11-0496","article-title":"Verticillium wilt, a major threat to olive production: Current status and future prospects for its management","volume":"96","author":"Cirulli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Plant Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/S0261-2194(98)00065-9","article-title":"Long-term study on the evaluation of yield and economic losses caused by Prays oleae Bern. in the olive crop of Granada (southern Spain)","volume":"17","author":"Ramos","year":"1998","journal-title":"Crop Protect."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_35.1","unstructured":"Fernandez, B.S., Hurle, B.J., Embodas, I.S., and Cerezo, E.M. (2019). The Impact Indicator for Priority Pests (I2P2): A Tool for Ranking Pests According to Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_35.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2016\/2031, Publications Office of the European Union, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Schena, L., Agosteo, G.E., and Cacciola, S.O. (2011). Olive diseases in a changing ecosystem. Olive Diseases and Disorders, Transworld Research Network."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5598","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1314437111","article-title":"Fine-scale ecological and economic assessment of climate change on olive in the Mediterranean Basin reveals winners and losers","volume":"111","author":"Ponti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/9\/3\/44\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:12:05Z","timestamp":1760177525000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2224-2708\/9\/3\/44"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["jsan9030044"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jsan9030044","relation":{},"ISSN":["2224-2708"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2224-2708","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]}}}