{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T02:54:04Z","timestamp":1767927244118,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":146,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,17]],"date-time":"2021-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Life"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent attention has been focused on the field of inflammatory biomarkers associated with vascular disorders, regarding diagnosis, prognosis, and possible therapeutical targets. In this study, we aimed to perform a comprehensive review of the literature regarding the use of inflammatory biomarkers in stroke patients. We searched studies that evaluated inflammation biomarkers associated with Cerebrovascular Disease (CVD), namely, ischemic Stroke (IS), Intracerebral Hemorrhage (ICH) and Cerebral Venous Thrombosis (CVT). As of today, neutrophil\u2013lymphocyte ratio (NLR) seems the be the most widely studied and accepted biomarker for cerebrovascular disease due to its easy access and availability. Although demonstrated as a prognostic risk factor, in IS, ICH and CVT, its diagnostic role is still under investigation. Several other prognostic factors could be used or even combined together into a diagnostic or prognostic index. Multiple inflammatory biomarkers appear to be involved in IS, ICH, and CVT. Blood inflammatory cells, easily measured and accessible at admission may provide information regarding accurate diagnosis and prognosis. Although not yet a reality, increasing evidence exists to suggest that these may become potential therapeutic targets, likely influencing or mitigating complications of CVD and improving prognosis. Nevertheless, further larger, well-designed randomized clinical trials are still needed to follow up this hypothesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/life11101103","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,17]],"date-time":"2021-10-17T23:05:47Z","timestamp":1634511947000},"page":"1103","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Acute Inflammation in Cerebrovascular Disease: A Critical Reappraisal with Focus on Human Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Rafael Azevedo","family":"Dias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Hospital Central do Funchal, 9000-177 Funchal, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Leonor","family":"Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3731-4508","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsa","family":"Azevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Cardiovascular R & D Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Centro Hospitalar Universit\u00e1rio S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Cardiovascular R & D Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1159\/000506396","article-title":"Global, Regional and Country-Specific Burden of Ischaemic Stroke, Intracerebral Haemorrhage and Subarachnoid Haemorrhage: A Systematic Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"54","author":"Krishnamurthi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2018.06.028","article-title":"Targeting vascular inflammation in ischemic stroke: Recent developments on novel immunomodulatory approaches","volume":"833","author":"Shekhar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. 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