{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T11:43:02Z","timestamp":1779363782587,"version":"3.53.0"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,19]],"date-time":"2021-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616112000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FCT.IP - UIDB\/00667\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT.IP - UIDB\/00667\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper is a critical review of in situ full-field measurements provided by digital image correlation (DIC) for inspecting and enhancing additive manufacturing (AM) processes. The principle of DIC is firstly recalled and its applicability during different AM processes systematically addressed. Relevant customisations of DIC in AM processes are highlighted regarding optical system, lighting and speckled pattern procedures. A perspective is given in view of the impact of in situ monitoring regarding AM processes based on target subjects concerning defect characterisation, evaluation of residual stresses, geometric distortions, strain measurements, numerical modelling validation and material characterisation. Finally, a case study on in situ measurements with DIC for wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is presented emphasizing opportunities, challenges and solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14061511","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,19]],"date-time":"2021-03-19T11:18:38Z","timestamp":1616152718000},"page":"1511","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":86,"title":["In Situ Monitoring of Additive Manufacturing Using Digital Image Correlation: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2334-3332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipa G.","family":"Cunha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9072-5010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Telmo G.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7836-4598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Xavier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-014-0958-z","article-title":"Metal additive manufacturing: A review","volume":"23","author":"Frazier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2020.140002","article-title":"Prediction of microstructural defects in additive manufacturing from powder bed quality using digital image correlation","volume":"794","author":"Bartlett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mierzejewska, A.A., Hud\u00e1k, R., and Sidun, J. (2019). Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of DMLS Ti6Al4V Alloy Dedicated to Biomedical Applications. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12010176"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"826","article-title":"Monitoring of the impacts of used materials for resulting attributes of an electric motor created via additive technology","volume":"9","year":"2020","journal-title":"TEM J."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"100862","article-title":"Charkaluk, E.; Constantinescu, A. Digital image correlation for microstructural analysis of deformation pattern in additively manufactured 316L thin walls","volume":"31","author":"Balit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2017.07.001","article-title":"Additive manufacturing: Scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities","volume":"21","author":"Tofail","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2020.106283","article-title":"Review on residual stress in selective laser melting additive manufacturing of alloy parts","volume":"129","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Razavykia, A., Brusa, E., Delprete, C., and Yavari, R. (2020). An Overview of Additive Manufacturing Technologies\u2014A Review to Technical Synthesis in Numerical Study of Selective Laser Melting. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13173895"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2017.04.013","article-title":"Functional gradients and heterogeneities in biological materials: Design principles, functions, and bioinspired applications","volume":"88","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gr\u00e9diac, M., and Hild, F. (2012). Full-Field Measurements and Identification in Solid Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118578469"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Rastogi, P., and Hack, E. (2012). Optical Methods for Solid Mechanics: A Full-Field Approach, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cloud, G. (1995). Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511575013"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sciammarella, C., and Sciammarella, F. (2012). Experimental Mechanics of Solids, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119994091"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchar.2004.07.009","article-title":"High strain gradient measurements by using digital image correlation technique","volume":"53","author":"Lagattu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mater. Charact."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1080\/17480272.2016.1263973","article-title":"Inverse identification of early- and latewood hydric properties using full-field measurements","volume":"13","author":"Dang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wood Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1177\/0309324718786351","article-title":"On the identification of earlywood and latewood radial elastic modulus of Pinus pinaster by digital image correlation: A parametric analysis","volume":"53","author":"Pereira","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2018.11.015","article-title":"Measurement of CTOD along a surface crack by means of digital image correlation","volume":"205","author":"Samadian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2020.102663","article-title":"Experimental determination of mode I fracture parameters in orthotropic materials by means of Digital Image Correlation","volume":"108","author":"Cappello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Fract. Mec."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majano-Majano, A., Lara-Bocanegra, A.J., Xavier, J., and Morais, J. (2019). Measuring the Cohesive Law in Mode I Loading of Eucalyptus globulus. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12010023"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majano-Majano, A., Lara-Bocanegra, A.J., Xavier, J., and Morais, J. (2020). Experimental Evaluation of Mode II fracture Properties of Eucalyptus globulus L.. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13030745"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, J., Xavier, J., Pereira, F., Morais, J., and de Moura, M. (2021). Direct evaluation of mixed mode I+II cohesive laws of wood by coupling MMB test with DIC. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14020374"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1007\/s40870-018-0175-1","article-title":"Image-Based Inertial Impact Test for Composite Interlaminar Tensile Properties","volume":"4","author":"Blitterswyk","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Behav. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s40870-018-0172-4","article-title":"An Image-Based Inertial Impact (IBII) Test for Tungsten Carbide Cermets","volume":"4","author":"Fletcher","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Behav. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s40870-019-00186-y","article-title":"A Novel Image-Based Inertial Impact Test (IBII) for the Transverse Properties of Composites at High Strain Rates","volume":"5","author":"Fletcher","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Behav. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.07.039","article-title":"Determination of the crack resistance curve for intralaminar fiber tensile failure mode in polymer composites under high rate loading","volume":"204","author":"Kuhn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2020.112068","article-title":"High strain rate characterisation of intralaminar fracture toughness of GFRPs for longitudinal tension and compression failure","volume":"240","author":"Catalanotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2013.09.004","article-title":"Characterisation of steel components under monotonic loading by means of image-based methods","volume":"53","author":"Xavier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/0309324715616017","article-title":"An evaluation of a protocol for the validation of computational solid mechanics models","volume":"51","author":"Hack","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Felipe-Ses\u00e9, L., L\u00f3pez-Alba, E., Hannemann, B., Schmeer, S., and Diaz, F.A. (2017). A Validation Approach for Quasistatic Numerical\/Experimental Indentation Analysis in Soft Materials Using 3D Digital Image Correlation. Materials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10070722"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s00226-012-0507-6","article-title":"Characterisation of the bending stiffness components of MDF panels from full-field slope measurements","volume":"47","author":"Xavier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wood Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1177\/0309324718791087","article-title":"Measuring orthotropic bending stiffness components of Pinus Pinaster Virtual Fields Method","volume":"53","author":"Xavier","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12370","DOI":"10.1111\/str.12370","article-title":"Towards Material Testing 2.0. A review of test design for identification of constitutive parameters from full-field measurements","volume":"57","author":"Pierron","year":"2021","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12313","DOI":"10.1111\/str.12313","article-title":"Design of heterogeneous mechanical tests: Numerical methodology and experimental validation","volume":"55","author":"Aquino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1007\/s10237-019-01186-6","article-title":"Determining constitutive behavior of the brain tissue using digital image correlation and finite element modeling","volume":"18","author":"Felfelian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomech. Model. Mechan."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2020.09.036","article-title":"On the validation of homogenized modeling for bi-pantographic metamaterials via digital image correlation","volume":"208\u2013209","author":"Barchiesi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrade-Campos, A., Aquino, J., Martins, J., and Coelho, B. (2019). On the Design of Innovative Heterogeneous Sheet Metal Tests Using a Shape Optimization Approach. Metals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/met9030371"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"829","article-title":"Direct Evaluation of Cohesive Law in Mode I of Pinus Pinaster Digit. Image Correl","volume":"54","author":"Xavier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2017.04.016","article-title":"Combined analytical-numerical methodologies for the evaluation of mixed-mode (I+II) fatigue crack growth rates in structural steels","volume":"185","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/s10704-020-00456-0","article-title":"On the experimental determination of the J-curve of quasi-brittle composite materials","volume":"224","author":"Wagih","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Fract."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1515\/hf-2013-0012","article-title":"Determination of cohesive laws in wood bonded joints under mode I loading using the DCB test","volume":"67","author":"Silva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Holzforschung"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2015.03.005","article-title":"Measurement of the mode {II} intralaminar fracture toughness and R-curve of polymer composites using a modified Iosipescu specimen and the size effect law","volume":"138","author":"Catalanotti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2014.11.017","article-title":"Measuring mode I cohesive law of wood bonded joints based on digital image correlation and fibre Bragg grating sensors","volume":"121","author":"Xavier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1111\/jmi.12963","article-title":"High-resolution optical microscopy for characterising microstructural deformation in microtensile testing","volume":"281","author":"Wanni","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Microsc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2018.10.152","article-title":"A review of miniaturised Non-Destructive Testing technologies for in-situ inspections","volume":"16","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-020-05627-w","article-title":"In situ studies of full-field residual stress mapping of SS304 stainless steel welds using DIC","volume":"109","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s40194-016-0410-0","article-title":"In situ strain evaluation during TIG welding determined by backside digital image correlation","volume":"61","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Weld. World"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Sutton, M., Orteu, J.J., and Schreier, H. (2009). Image Correlation for Shape, Motion and Deformation Measurements: Basic Concepts, Theory and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062001","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/20\/6\/062001","article-title":"Two-dimensional digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement: A review","volume":"20","author":"Pan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"082001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aac55b","article-title":"Digital image correlation for surface deformation measurement: Historical developments, recent advances and future goals","volume":"29","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atkinson, D., and Becker, T. (2020). A 117 Line 2D Digital Image Correlation Code Written in MATLAB. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182906"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2007.11.009","article-title":"3-D computer vision in experimental mechanics","volume":"47","author":"Orteu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-018-0390-7","article-title":"Digital Volume Correlation: Review of Progress and Challenges","volume":"58","author":"Buljac","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-012-9603-7","article-title":"Comparison of Local and Global Approaches to Digital Image Correlation","volume":"52","author":"Hild","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19242","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.019242","article-title":"Fourier-based interpolation bias prediction in digital image correlation","volume":"23","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2021, February 04). Correlated Solutions. Available online: https:\/\/www.correlatedsolutions.com\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2021, February 04). GOM ARAMIS\/GOM Correlate. Available online: https:\/\/www.gom.com\/en\/products\/3d-testing."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2021, February 04). MatchID. Available online: https:\/\/www.matchid.eu\/Software.html."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2021, February 04). The Imetrum. Available online: https:\/\/www.imetrum.com\/company\/the-imetrum-story\/."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2021, February 04). EikoSim. Available online: https:\/\/eikosim.com\/en\/use-cases\/digital-image-correlation-lattice-structures\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-015-0009-1","article-title":"Ncorr: Open-Source 2D Digital Image Correlation Matlab Software","volume":"55","author":"Blaber","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Turner, D., Crozier, P., and Reu, P. (2015). Digital Image Correlation Engine (DICe), Sandia National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2019.100391","article-title":"DIC: An open-source toolkit for digital image correlation","volume":"11","author":"Olufsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"SoftwareX"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30520","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2843725","article-title":"MultiDIC: An Open-Source Toolbox for Multi-View 3D Digital Image Correlation","volume":"6","author":"Solav","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-016-0246-y","article-title":"Finite Element Stereo Digital Image Correlation: Framework and Mechanical Regularization","volume":"57","author":"Passieux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belloni, V., Ravanelli, R., Nascetti, A., di Rita, M., Mattei, D., and Crespi, M. (2019). py2DIC: A New Free and Open Source Software for Displacement and Strain Measurements in the Field of Experimental Mechanics. Exp. Mech., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183832"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"R\u00e9thor\u00e9, J. (2021, February 04). 2018 UFreckles. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/1433776#.YFhTG6_7RPb."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Seghir, R., Witz, J., and Coudert, S. (2021, February 04). YaDICs(2015)\u2014Digital Image Correlation 2\/3D. Available online: http:\/\/www.yadics.univ-lille1.fr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2008.10.015","article-title":"Parameter choice for optimized digital image correlation","volume":"47","author":"Triconnet","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.012","article-title":"Stereovision measurements on evaluating the modulus of elasticity of wood by compression tests parallel to the grain","volume":"26","author":"Xavier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Bulid. Mater."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02323101","article-title":"Analysis of strain localization during tensile tests by digital image correlation","volume":"41","author":"Wattrisse","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"135","article-title":"In situ real time defect detection of 3D printed parts","volume":"17","author":"Holzmond","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1","article-title":"Revealing mechanisms of residual stress development in additive manufacturing via digital image correlation","volume":"22","author":"Bartlett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"101","article-title":"In-situ distortions in LMD additive manufacturing walls can be measured with digital image correlation and predicted using numerical simulations","volume":"20","author":"Biegler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"264","article-title":"Finite element analysis of in-situ distortion and bulging for an arbitrarily curved additive manufacturing directed energy deposition geometry","volume":"24","author":"Biegler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2018.08.069","article-title":"Assessing the predictive capability of numerical additive manufacturing simulations via in-situ distortion measurements on a LMD component during build-up","volume":"74","author":"Biegler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.04.039","article-title":"The full-field strain distribution and the evolution behavior during additive manufacturing through in-situ observation","volume":"150","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12350","DOI":"10.1111\/str.12350","article-title":"Validation of finite-element models using full-field experimental data: Levelling finite-element analysis data through a digital image correlation engine","volume":"56","author":"Lava","year":"2020","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2019.01.049","article-title":"In-situ observation and numerical simulation on the transient strain and distortion prediction during additive manufacturing","volume":"38","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2019.05.020","article-title":"In-situ monitoring and deformation characterization by optical techniques; part I: Laser-aided direct metal deposition for additive manufacturing","volume":"122","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Abe, H. (2004, January 13\u201315). Device technologies for high quality and smaller pixel in CCD and CMOS image sensors. Proceedings of the IEDM Technical Digest. IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2016.02.015","article-title":"A 360-deg Digital Image Correlation system for materials testing","volume":"82","author":"Genovese","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1080\/13621718.2017.1367550","article-title":"Investigation of solidification cracking susceptibility during laser beam welding using an in-situ observation technique","volume":"23","author":"Bakir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Weld. Joi."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025403","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/41\/2\/025403","article-title":"Analytical and numerical modelling of the direct metal deposition laser process","volume":"41","author":"Peyre","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-8166(03)00063-0","article-title":"3D finite element modeling of laser cladding by powder injection: Effects of laser pulse shaping on the process","volume":"41","author":"Toyserkani","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"95","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of a functionally graded material from Ti-6Al-4V to SS316 by laser metal deposition","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"12","article-title":"An overview of Direct Laser Deposition for additive manufacturing; Part II: Mechanical behavior, process parameter optimization and control","volume":"8","author":"Shamsaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5402\/2012\/208760","article-title":"A Review of Additive Manufacturing","volume":"2012","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISRN Mec. Eng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, T.A., Duarte, V., Miranda, R.M., Santos, T.G., and Oliveira, J.P. (2019). Current status and perspectives on wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12071121"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Engineering, W.O. (2021, February 04). Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Au_zRPr1wr4&ab_channel=WorldOfEngineering."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Bhavar, V., Kattire, P., Patil, V., Khot, S., Gujar, K., and Singh, R. (2014). A review on powder bed fusion technology of metal additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing Handbook: Product Development for the Defense Industry, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"MORI, D. (2021, February 04). New Method of Manufacturing using Powder Bed: Additive Manufacturing with Selective Laser Melting. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=te9OaSZ0kf8&ab_channel=DMGMORI."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Shellabear, M., and Nyrhil\u00e4, O. (2004, January 21\u201324). DMLS\u2013Development History and State of the Art. Proceedings of the Lane 2004 Conference, Erlangen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"(2015). ISO 17296-2. Additive Manufacturing\u2014General Overview of Process Categories and Feedstock, ISO."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Formlabs (2021, February 04). Introduction to Stereolithography. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=yW4EbCWaJHE&ab_channel=Formlabs."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Concepts, S. (2021, February 04). PolyJet Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Som3CddHfZE&feature=youtu.be&ab_channel=SolidConcepts."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Marketing, M.P. (2021, February 04). ExOne Binder Jetting EN (3D Core & Mold Printing). Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=deA-7b3guT4&ab_channel=MovingPeopleMarketing."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Explanations, M. (2021, February 04). Fused Filament Fabrication. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=GUbBjPN_Y_c&ab_channel=mechexplanations."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Kumaraguru, S. (2021, February 04). LOM Process. Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Z1WNA6tdfWM&ab_channel=SenthilkumaranKumaraguru."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.000884","article-title":"Optimized digital speckle patterns for digital image correlation by consideration of both accuracy and efficiency","volume":"57","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Optics."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-006-5869-y","article-title":"Development of patterns for digital image correlation measurements at reduced length scales","volume":"47","author":"Scrivens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-017-0283-1","article-title":"A Review of Speckle Pattern Fabrication and Assessment for Digital Image Correlation","volume":"57","author":"Dong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015203","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/27\/1\/015203","article-title":"Fabrication and optimization of micro-scale speckle patterns for digital image correlation","volume":"27","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"033705","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5124496","article-title":"Method for conducting in situ high-temperature digital image correlation with simultaneous synchrotron measurements under thermomechanical conditions","volume":"91","author":"Rossmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2018.10.022","article-title":"In-situ 3D shape and recession measurements of ablative materials in an arc-heated wind tunnel by UV stereo-digital image correlation","volume":"116","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"211","article-title":"How Surface Roughness Performance of Printed Parts Manufactured by Desktop FDM 3D Printer with PLA+ is Influenced by Measuring Direction","volume":"5","author":"Alsoufi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Mec. Eng."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2009.03.050","article-title":"In-situ strain observation in high power laser cladding","volume":"203","author":"Bosgra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"101193","article-title":"Hot forging wire and arc additive manufacturing (HF-WAAM)","volume":"35","author":"Duarte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"100782","article-title":"Non-destructive testing for wire + arc additive manufacturing of aluminium parts","volume":"29","author":"Bento","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-019-0600-y","article-title":"Phased Array Ultrasonic Inspection of Metal Additive Manufacturing Parts","volume":"38","author":"Lopez","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"100806","article-title":"Ultrasonic phased array inspection of a Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured (WAAM) sample with intentionally embedded defects","volume":"29","author":"Javadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"298","article-title":"Non-destructive testing application of radiography and ultrasound for wire and arc additive manufacturing","volume":"21","author":"Lopez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dass, A., and Moridi, A. (2019). State of the Art in Directed Energy Deposition: From Additive Manufacturing to Materials Design. Coatings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings9070418"},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"123","article-title":"Direct Metal Laser Sintering\u2014Possibility of Application in Production Process","volume":"1","author":"Hatala","year":"2018","journal-title":"SAR J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidakis, N., Petousis, M., Vaxevanidis, N., and Kechagias, J. (2020). Surface Roughness Investigation of Poly-Jet 3D Printing. Mathematics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/math8101758"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslani, K.E., Chaidas, D., Kechagias, J., Kyratsis, P., and Salonitis, K. (2020). Quality Performance Evaluation of Thin Walled PLA 3D Printed Parts Using the Taguchi Method and Grey Relational Analysis. J. Manuf. Mater. Process., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmmp4020047"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1108\/13552540710719172","article-title":"An Experimental Investigation of the Surface Roughness of Parts Produced by LOM Process","volume":"13","author":"Kechagias","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/14\/6\/1511\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:38:19Z","timestamp":1760161099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/14\/6\/1511"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,19]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ma14061511"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma14061511","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,19]]}}}