{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T13:52:51Z","timestamp":1762782771977,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]],"date-time":"2022-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658361600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/00481\/2020","UIDP\/00481\/2020","CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00481\/2020","UIDP\/00481\/2020","CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Centro Portugal Regional Operational Programme (Centro2020)","award":["UIDB\/00481\/2020","UIDP\/00481\/2020","CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00481\/2020","UIDP\/00481\/2020","CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The search for lightweight structures increases the demand for non-metallic materials, such as polymers, composites, and hybrid structures. This work presents the dissimilar joining through direct laser joining between polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and S235 galvanised steel using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. The main goal is to determine the influence of processing parameters on joint strength and quality. In addition, the impact of surface conditions on the joint quality was also analysed. Overall, the optimum ranges of process parameters were found, and some are worth highlighting, such as the laser beam diameter and pulse duration, which significantly influenced the joint strength. Failure of the welded samples occurred in PMMA component, demonstrating good joint efficiency. Additionally, a maximum increase of 5.1% of the tensile shear strength was achieved thanks to the mechanical pre-treatment. It is possible to conclude that the joining between PMMA and the S235 galvanised steel can be performed by optimising the process parameters. Additionally, it can be enhanced through surface pre-treatments by exploring the mechanical interlock between both materials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15145081","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]],"date-time":"2022-07-21T22:38:50Z","timestamp":1658443130000},"page":"5081","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Laser Direct Joining of Steel to Polymethylmethacrylate: The Influence of Process Parameters and Surface Mechanical Pre-Treatment on the Joint Strength and Quality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9751-8807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"F\u00e1bio A. O.","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"TEMA\u2014Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"LASI\u2014Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8371-4428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 P.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TEMA\u2014Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Vilarinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TEMA\u2014Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8342-5116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio B.","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TEMA\u2014Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"LASI\u2014Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2008.07.004","article-title":"Study of two different thin film coating methods in transmission laser micro-joining of thin Ti-film coated glass and polyimide for biomedical applications","volume":"2","author":"Sultana","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/10408436.2019.1708701","article-title":"A comprehensive assessment of laser welding of biomedical devices and implant materials: Recent research, development and applications","volume":"46","author":"Quazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2007.06.058","article-title":"An overview of the polymer-to-metal direct-adhesion hybrid technologies for load-bearing automotive components","volume":"197","author":"Grujicic","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mater. Processing Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2016.08.018","article-title":"A new laser joining technology for direct-bonding of metals and plastics","volume":"110","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schricker, K., Alhomsi, M., and Bergmann, J.P. (2020). Thermal efficiency in laser-assisted joining of polymer\u2013metal composites. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13214875"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/s40194-017-0429-x","article-title":"Laser-based joining of metal-thermoplastic tailored welded blanks","volume":"61","author":"Stambke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Weld. World"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2008.08.026","article-title":"Laser direct joining of metal and plastic","volume":"59","author":"Katayama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2016.04.086","article-title":"Fibre laser joining of highly dissimilar materials: Commercially pure Ti and PET hybrid joint for medical device applications","volume":"103","author":"Chan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2016.03.044","article-title":"Effect of surface pre-oxidation on laser assisted joining of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and zinc-coated steel","volume":"99","author":"Jung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2012.12.015","article-title":"Laser direct joining of carbon fiber reinforced plastic to zinc-coated steel","volume":"47","author":"Jung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jajp.2020.100008","article-title":"Bonding mechanisms in laser-assisted joining of metal-polymer composites","volume":"1","author":"Schricker","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adv. Join. Processes"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.0c00015","article-title":"Highlighting Chemical Bonding between Nylon-6.6 and the Native Oxide from an Aluminum Sheet Assembled by Laser Welding","volume":"2","author":"Hirchenhahn","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Polym. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1108\/01445150210697429","article-title":"Laser welding for plastic components","volume":"22","author":"Jones","year":"2002","journal-title":"Assem. Autom."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2012.01.006","article-title":"Effect of anodizing on pulsed Nd:YAG laser joining of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and aluminium alloy (A5052)","volume":"37","author":"Yusof","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2014.03.018","article-title":"Effect of surface modification on laser direct joining of cyclic olefin polymer and stainless steel","volume":"59","author":"Arai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phpro.2014.08.032","article-title":"Laser surface pre-treatment of aluminium for hybrid joints with glass fibre reinforced thermoplastics","volume":"Volume 56","author":"Heckert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Physics Procedia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2016.09.028","article-title":"Laser-assisted direct joining of AISI304 stainless steel with polycarbonate sheets: Thermal analysis, mechanical characterization, and bonds morphology","volume":"88","author":"Lambiase","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2011.01.021","article-title":"Laser direct joining of AZ91D thixomolded Mg alloy and amorphous polyethylene terephthalate","volume":"211","author":"Wahba","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mater. Processing Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2917","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-020-05123-1","article-title":"Laser joining of titanium alloy to polyamide: Influence of process parameters on the joint strength and quality","volume":"107","author":"Lama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.2320\/matertrans.L-M2011804","article-title":"Effect of aluminum surface state on laser joining between 1050 aluminum sheet and polypropylene resin sheet using insert materials","volume":"52","author":"Hino","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Trans."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2018.02.003","article-title":"Experimental investigation into metal micro-patterning by laser on polymer-metal hybrid joining","volume":"104","author":"Sanz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2012.12.028","article-title":"Evaluation of PMMA joining to stainless steel 304 using pulsed Nd:YAG laser","volume":"49","author":"Hussein","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2020.106726","article-title":"Optimization of weld strength for laser welding of steel to PMMA using Taguchi design method","volume":"136","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.885.61","article-title":"Adhesion of steel and PMMA by means of laser radiation","volume":"885","author":"Bauernhuber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2021","article-title":"Laser-assisted Joining of Steel and Cellulose Fiber-reinforced PMMA","volume":"18","author":"Temesi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Polytech. Hung."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2012). Plastics\u2014Determination of Tensile Properties\u2014Part 1: General Principles (Standard No. ISO 527-1:2012 (E))."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/14\/5081\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:55:36Z","timestamp":1760140536000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/15\/14\/5081"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ma15145081"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma15145081","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1996-1944"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]]}}}