{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T12:38:34Z","timestamp":1773232714331,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]],"date-time":"2022-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663718400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University Internal Research Funding (URIF)","award":["015LB0-051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["015LB0-051"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fly oil shale ash (FOSA) is a waste material known for its pozzolanic activity. This study intends to investigate the optimum thermal treatment conditions to use FOSA efficiently as a cement replacement material. FOSA samples were burned in an electric oven for 2, 4, and 6 h at temperatures ranging from 550 \u00b0C to 1000 \u00b0C with 150 \u00b0C intervals. A total of 333 specimens out of 37 different mixes were prepared and tested with cement replacement ratios between 10% and 30%. The investigated properties included the mineralogical characteristics, chemical elemental analysis, compressive strength, and strength activity index for mortar samples. The findings show that the content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 was less than 70% in all samples. The strength activity index of the raw FOSA at 56 days exceeded 75%. Among all specimens, the calcined samples for 2 h demonstrated the highest pozzolanic activity and compressive strength with a 75% strength activity index. The model developed by RSM is suitable for the interpretation of FOSA in the cementitious matrix with high degrees of correlation above 85%. The optimal compressive strength was achieved at a 30% replacement level, a temperature of 700 \u00b0C for 2 h, and after 56 days of curing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15196538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,22]],"date-time":"2022-09-22T01:47:06Z","timestamp":1663811226000},"page":"6538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Modelling and Optimization for Mortar Compressive Strength Incorporating Heat-Treated Fly Oil Shale Ash as an Effective Supplementary Cementitious Material Using Response Surface Methodology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1044-6474","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marsail","family":"Al Salaheen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh 32610, Perak, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman 11134, Jordan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7752-3756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wesam","family":"Alaloul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3505-6798","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Malkawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman 11134, Jordan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6766-2736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"de Brito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7316-6656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalid","family":"Alzubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh 32610, Perak, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman 11134, Jordan"}]},{"given":"Abdulnaser","family":"Al-Sabaeei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thamar University, Thamar 87246, Yemen"}]},{"given":"Mohamad","family":"Alnarabiji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Advanced Material and Energy Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"20130179","article-title":"The Future of Oil Supply","volume":"372","author":"Miller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. 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