{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T13:19:35Z","timestamp":1776691175019,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]],"date-time":"2023-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kaunas University of Technology","award":["ST34-102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST34-102"]}]},{"name":"Riga Technical University","award":["ST34-102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST34-102"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates the possibility of utilising bottom slag (BS) waste from landfills, and a carbonation process advantageous for the use of artificial aggregates (AAs) in printed three-dimensional (3D) concrete composites. In general, the main idea of granulated aggregates is to reduce the amount of CO2 emissions of printed 3D concrete objects (wall). AAs are made from construction materials, both granulated and carbonated. Granules are made from a combination of binder (ordinary Portland cement (OPC), hydrated lime, burnt shale ash (BSA)) and waste material (BS). BS is a waste material left over after the municipal waste burning process in cogeneration power plants. Whole printed 3D concrete composite manufacturing consists of: granulating artificial aggregate, aggregate hardening and sieving (adaptive granulometer), carbonation of AA, mixing 3D concrete, and 3D printing. The granulating and printing processes were analysed for hardening processes, strength results, workability parameters, and physical and mechanical properties. Printings with no granules (reference 3D printed concrete) were compared to 3D printed concretes with 25% and 50% of their natural aggregate replaced with carbonated AA. The results showed that, theoretically, the carbonation process could help to react approximately 126 kg\/m3 CO2 from 1 m3 of granules.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16114045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,30]],"date-time":"2023-05-30T02:04:21Z","timestamp":1685412261000},"page":"4045","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Influence of Carbonated Bottom Slag Granules in 3D Concrete Printing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Karolina","family":"Butkute","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kaunas University of Technology, Student\u0173 g. 48, 51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}]},{"given":"Vitoldas","family":"Vaitkevicius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kaunas University of Technology, Student\u0173 g. 48, 51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2332-1347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maris","family":"Sinka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, Kipsala Street 6A, LV1048, Riga, Latvia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7271-4043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Algirdas","family":"Augonis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kaunas University of Technology, Student\u0173 g. 48, 51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7207-7379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandrs","family":"Korjakins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, Kipsala Street 6A, LV1048, Riga, Latvia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, December 10). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/smm\/energy-recovery-combustion-municipal-solid-waste-msw."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27624-7","article-title":"Potential for future reductions of global GHG and air pollutants from circular waste management systems","volume":"13","author":"Kiesewetter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023, January 15). France 24. Available online: https:\/\/www.france24.com\/en\/live-news\/20211104-oil-rich-uae-to-burn-waste-to-make-power."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"ecoprog (2023, January 13). Waste to Energy 2022\/2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecoprog.com\/publications\/energy-management\/waste-to-energy.htm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2019.11.031","article-title":"Legal situation and current practice of waste incineration bottom ash utilisation in Europe","volume":"102","author":"Blasenbauer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Themelis, N.J. (2003). An overview of the global waste-to-energy industry. Waste Manag. World, 40\u201347. Available online: http:\/\/www.columbia.edu\/cu\/seas\/earth\/papers\/global_waste_to_energy.html."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2023, January 10). European Commision, Energy. Available online: https:\/\/energy.ec.europa.eu\/topics\/oil-gas-and-coal\/methane-emissions_en."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Sussman, D.B. (1989). Municipal Waste Combustion Ash: Testing Methods. Constituents and Potential Uses, Ogden Martin Systems, Inc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.411","article-title":"Enhancement of high temperature performance of cement blocks via CO2 curing","volume":"671","author":"Meng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2023, January 18). Sciencedirect. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/carbonation-process."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2014.11.680","article-title":"CO2 Capture in the Cement Industry, Norcem CO2 Capture Project (Norway)","volume":"63","author":"Bjerge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2023, January 10). HOLCIM, Climate Report 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.holcim.com\/sites\/holcim\/files\/2023-03\/31032023-holcim-climate-report-2023-7392605829.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2023, January 20). Carbon8. Available online: https:\/\/www.carbon8.co.uk\/solution."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2023, January 20). 3D Natives You Source for 3D Printing. Available online: https:\/\/www.3dnatives.com\/en\/apis-cor-largest-3d-printed-building-261020194\/."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2023, January 13). Holcim. Available online: https:\/\/www.holcim.com\/media\/media-releases\/lafargeholcim-record-wind-turbine-towers-3d-printed-concrete."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2022, December 28). 3D Printing. Available online: https:\/\/3dprinting.com\/construction\/dubai-unveils-worlds-largest-on-site-3d-printed-building\/."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khosravani, M.R., and Haghighi, A. (2022). Large-Scale automated additive construction: Overwiew, robotic solutions, sustainability, and future procpect, Sustainability, and Future Prospect. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14159782"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"101145","article-title":"3D printable magnesium oxide concrete: Towards sustainable modern architecture","volume":"33","author":"Khalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128559","article-title":"Effects of Early-Age rheology and printing time interval on Late-Age fracture characteristics of 3D printed concrete","volume":"351","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126548","article-title":"Municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash recycling in concrete: Preliminary approach with Oporto wastes","volume":"323","author":"Matos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2017.02.028","article-title":"Integral recycling of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) bottom ash fines (0\u20132 mm) and industrial powder wastes by cold-bonding pelletization","volume":"62","author":"Tang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.01.112","article-title":"Valorization of concrete slurry waste (CSW) and fine incineration bottom ash (IBA) into cold bonded lightweight aggregates (cblas): Feasibility and influence of binder types","volume":"368","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"e01434","article-title":"Sustainable use of different size fractions of municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash and recycled fine aggregates in cement mortar","volume":"17","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2016.01.010","article-title":"High performance of treated and washed MSWI bottom ash granulates as natural aggregate replacement within earth-moist concrete","volume":"49","author":"Keulen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, March 28). Glatt. Available online: https:\/\/foodfeedfinechemicals.glatt.com\/technology-know-how\/processes\/agglomeration\/wet-granulation\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.135275","article-title":"Production and characterization of lightweight aggregates from municipal solid waste incineration fly-ash through single- and double-step pelletization process","volume":"383","author":"Ferraro","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"2283","article-title":"Use of MSWI fly ash for the production of lightweight artificial aggregate by means of innovative cold bonding Pelletization technique. Chemical and morphological characterization","volume":"60","author":"Colangelo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.129993","article-title":"Research on the durability and Sustainability of an artificial lightweight aggregate concrete made from municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash (MSWIBA)","volume":"365","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.12911\/22998993\/89794","article-title":"The Use of Granulation to Reduce Dusting and Manage of Fine Coal","volume":"19","author":"Ozga","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2011.11.002","article-title":"Carbon capture and storage using alkaline industrial wastes","volume":"38","author":"Bobicki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2016.05.002","article-title":"Effect of curing parameters on CO2 curing of concrete blocks containing recycled aggregates","volume":"71","author":"Zhan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Liu, P., and Yu, Z. (2018). Effects of Environmental Factors on Concrete Carbonation Depth and Compressive Strength. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11112167"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"117","article-title":"Accelerated Carbonation Curing as a Means of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions","volume":"32","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Ind."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2018). Lightweight Aggregates (Standard No. EN 13055:2016)."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(1997). Aggregate for Concrete and Mortar. Testing Methods. Determination of strength (Standard No. LST 1476.7:1997)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2022, December 20). The Constructor. Available online: https:\/\/theconstructor.org\/practical-guide\/aggregate-crushing-value\/2245\/."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Navickas, A.A., Skripki\u016bnas, G., and Ge\u010dys, R. (2001). Med\u017eiagotyros ir Statybini\u0173 Med\u017eiag\u0173 Laboratoriniai Darbai, Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2008). Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates\u2014Part 5: Determination of the Water Content by Drying in a Ventilated Oven (Standard No. EN 1097-5:2008)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2022). Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates\u2014Part 6: Determination of Particle Density and Water Absorption (Standard No. EN 1097-6:2022)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2002). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 3: Determination of Consistence of Fresh Mortar (by Flow Table) (Standard No. EN 1015-3:2002)."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2002). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 6: Determination of Bulk Density of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-6:2002)."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2002). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 7: Determination of Air Content of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-7:2002)."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spurina, E., Sinka, M., Ziemelis, K., Vanags, A., and Bajare, D. (2022). The Effects of Air-Entraining Agent on Fresh and Hardened Properties of 3D Concrete. J. Compos. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs6100281"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2020). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 11: Determination of Flexural and Compressive Strength of Hardened Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-11:2020)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joh, C., Lee, J., Bui, Q., Park, J., and Yang, I.-H. (2020). Buildability and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Concrete. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13214919"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.104290","article-title":"Effect of carbonated recycled coarse aggregates on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete","volume":"51","author":"Russo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/11\/4045\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:44:32Z","timestamp":1760125472000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/16\/11\/4045"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ma16114045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma16114045","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]]}}}