{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T06:53:12Z","timestamp":1776149592486,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]],"date-time":"2024-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2019 and UIDB\/04436\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2019 and UIDB\/04436\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SIFA - Sistema Inteligente de Fabrica\u00e7\u00e3o Aditiva (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-047108)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SIFA - Sistema Inteligente de Fabrica\u00e7\u00e3o Aditiva (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-047108)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund through the Operational Competitiveness and Internationalization Programme (COMPETE 2020)","award":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2019 and UIDB\/04436\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2019 and UIDB\/04436\/2020"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund through the Operational Competitiveness and Internationalization Programme (COMPETE 2020)","award":["SIFA - Sistema Inteligente de Fabrica\u00e7\u00e3o Aditiva (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-047108)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SIFA - Sistema Inteligente de Fabrica\u00e7\u00e3o Aditiva (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-047108)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the most well-regarded additive manufacturing (AM) sub-processes, whose popularity has been increasing among numerous critical and demanding industries due to its capabilities, mainly manufacturing parts with highly complex geometries and desirable mechanical properties, with potential to replace other, more expensive, conventional processes. However, due to its various underlying multi-physics phenomena, the intrinsic complexity of the SLS process often hampers its industrial implementation. Such limitation has motivated academic interest in obtaining better insights into the process to optimize it and attain the required standards. In that regard, the usual experimental optimization methods are time-consuming and expensive and can fail to provide the optimal configurations, leading researchers to resort to computational modeling to better understand the process. The main objective of the present work is to develop a computational model capable of simulating the SLS process for polymeric applications, within an open-source framework, at a particle-length scale to assess the main process parameters\u2019 impact. Following previous developments, virgin and used polymer granules with different viscosities are implemented to better represent the actual process feedstock. The results obtained agree with the available experimental data, leading to a powerful tool to study, in greater detail, the SLS process and its physical parameters and material properties, contributing to its optimization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17081845","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]],"date-time":"2024-04-17T07:54:36Z","timestamp":1713340476000},"page":"1845","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Computational Framework to Model the Selective Laser Sintering Process"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5577-4317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Castro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azur\u00e9m, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5303-6467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o Miguel","family":"N\u00f3brega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azur\u00e9m, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1904-8317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, Campus de Azur\u00e9m, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2015). Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies. F42 Committee. Standard No. ASTM F2792-12a."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). 3D Printing Technology Comparison: FDM vs. SLA vs. SLS. Available online: https:\/\/formlabs.com\/blog\/fdm-vs-sla-vs-sls-how-to-choose-the-right-3d-printing-technology\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2014). Performance Limitations in Polymer Laser Sintering. Phys. Procedia, 56, 147\u2013156.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phpro.2014.08.157"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"050001","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0159825","article-title":"Computational Modelling of the Selective Laser Sintering Process","volume":"2997","author":"Castro","year":"2023","journal-title":"AIP Conf. Proc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2022.06.016","article-title":"An investigation on mechanical properties of PA12 parts produced by a SLS 3D printer: An experimental approach","volume":"38","author":"Razaviye","year":"2022","journal-title":"CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Gouge, M., and Michaleris, P. (2018). Thermo-Mechanical Modeling of Additive Manufacturing, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042002","DOI":"10.1088\/2631-7990\/ac9096","article-title":"Advances in Selective Laser Sintering of Polymers","volume":"4","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Extrem. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2020.103553","article-title":"Packing Quality of Powder Layer during Counter-Rolling-Type Powder Spreading Process in Additive Manufacturing","volume":"153","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2014.03.015","article-title":"Multiphysics Modeling and Simulation of Selective Laser Sintering Manufacturing Processes","volume":"14","author":"Ganeriwala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steuben, J., Iliopoulos, A., and Michopoulos, J. (2017, January 6\u20139). Recent Developments of the Multiphysics Discrete Element Method for Additive Manufacturing Modeling and Simulation. Proceedings of the ASME 2017 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Cleveland, OH, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/DETC2017-67597"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"169","article-title":"Finite Element Modeling and Validation of Thermomechanical Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V in Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2939","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-020-06294-7","article-title":"A Comprehensive Study on Thermal Modeling of SLM Process under Conduction Mode Using FEM","volume":"111","author":"Papazoglou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2020.04.080","article-title":"Experimental Investigating and Numerical Simulations of the Thermal Behavior and Process Optimization for Selective Laser Sintering of PA6","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Process."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crme.2018.08.002","article-title":"Process of Selective Laser Sintering of Polymer Powders: Modeling, Simulation, and Validation","volume":"346","author":"Mokrane","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus M\u00e9canique"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s00466-018-1614-5","article-title":"Powder-Scale Multi-Physics Modeling of Multi-Layer Multi-Track Selective Laser Melting with Sharp Interface Capturing Method","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Mech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Svyetlichnyy, D. (2023). Model of the Selective Laser Melting Process-Powder Deposition Models in Multistage Multi-Material Simulations. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13106196"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"041304","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4937809","article-title":"Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing of Metals; Physics, Computational, and Materials Challenges","volume":"2","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1108\/13552549910251846","article-title":"Numerical Prediction of Temperature and Density Distributions in Selective Laser Sintering Processes","volume":"5","author":"Lombera","year":"1999","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1243\/095440505X8109","article-title":"Selective Laser Sintering (Melting) of Stainless and Tool Steel Powders: Experiments and Modelling","volume":"219","author":"Childs","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1108\/13552540210451732","article-title":"Distortion Minimization of Laser-processed Components through Control of Laser Scanning Patterns","volume":"8","author":"Dai","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2008.02.040","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Transient Finite Element Analysis of the Selective Laser Sintering Process","volume":"209","author":"Dong","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.commatsci.2014.06.046","article-title":"Modelling, Simulation and Experimental Validation of Heat Transfer in Selective Laser Melting of the Polymeric Material PA12","volume":"93","author":"Riedlbauer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2015.04.030","article-title":"Experimental and Numerical Analysis of the Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) of PA12 and PEKK Semi-Crystalline Polymers","volume":"225","author":"Peyre","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2015.10.002","article-title":"Finite Element Simulation of Selective Laser Melting Process Considering Optical Penetration Depth of Laser in Powder Bed","volume":"89","author":"Foroozmehr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3635","DOI":"10.1007\/s00707-021-03020-6","article-title":"Modeling the Temperature, Crystallization, and Residual Stress for Selective Laser Sintering of Polymeric Powder","volume":"232","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Mech."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"102362","article-title":"Experimental Parameter Identification for Part-Scale Thermal Modeling of Selective Laser Sintering of PA12","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00466-021-02079-1","article-title":"Tool Path Optimization of Selective Laser Sintering Processes Using Deep Learning","volume":"69","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Mech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1177\/0954405414567522","article-title":"Simulation of Metallic Powder Bed Additive Manufacturing Processes with the Finite Element Method: A Critical Review","volume":"231","author":"Schoinochoritis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"318","article-title":"A Survey of Finite Element Analysis of Temperature and Thermal Stress Fields in Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing","volume":"21","author":"Luo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"102336","article-title":"Review on Modeling Techniques for Powder Bed Fusion Processes Based on Physical Principles","volume":"47","author":"Soundararajan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-021-09601-x","article-title":"On the Modeling and Simulation of SLM and SLS for Metal and Polymer Powders: A Review","volume":"29","author":"Papazoglou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osmanlic, F., Wudy, K., Laumer, T., Schmidt, M., Drummer, D., and K\u00f6rner, C. (2018). Modeling of Laser Beam Absorption in a Polymer Powder Bed. Polymers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym10070784"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109432-1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2020.109432","article-title":"Universal Process Diagrams for Laser Sintering of Polymers","volume":"199","author":"Bierwisch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2019.105230","article-title":"Phase-Field-Model-Based Analysis of the Effects of Powder Particle on Porosities and Densities in Selective Laser Sintering Additive Manufacturing","volume":"166","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro, J. (2022). Computational Modelling of the Selective Laser Sintering Process. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, University of Minho].","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0159825"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). LIGGGHTS Open Source Discrete Element Method Particle Simulation Code|CFDEM project. Available online: https:\/\/www.cfdem.com\/liggghts-open-source-discrete-element-method-particle-simulation-code."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). PA2200 Material Data Sheet 12-08 en. Available online: https:\/\/www.shapeways.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/12\/Material-data-sheet-Nylon-12.pdf."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). OpenFOAM. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). OpenFOAM v1806: New and Updated Solvers and Physics. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/news\/main-news\/openfoam-v1806\/solver-and-physics."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s40964-021-00254-7","article-title":"The Influence of the Energy Density on Dimensional, Geometric, Mechanical and Morphological Properties of SLS Parts Produced with Single and Multiple Exposure Types","volume":"7","author":"Lopes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1108\/13552541311292709","article-title":"Shear viscosity measurements on Polyamide-12 polymers for laser sintering","volume":"19","author":"Haworth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, January 20). Openfoam: Master Commits. Available online: https:\/\/develop.openfoam.com\/Development\/openfoam\/-\/blob\/master\/applications\/solvers\/multiphase\/icoReactingMultiphaseInterFoam\/YEqns.H."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phpro.2015.11.047","article-title":"Selective Laser Melting of Polymer Powder\u2014Part Mechanics as Function of Exposure Speed","volume":"78","author":"Drexler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Procedia"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/8\/1845\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:29:16Z","timestamp":1760106556000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/17\/8\/1845"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ma17081845"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma17081845","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]}}}