{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T22:51:50Z","timestamp":1772491910465,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sustainable and durable materials are in increasing demand as the aerospace sector seeks to reduce its environmental footprint while enhancing performance and safety. Biocomposites, recycled materials, nanomaterials, and advanced composites are being explored as alternatives to conventional aircraft materials. This work analyses the available options by comparing the mechanical properties, environmental impact, and lifecycle costs of these materials, as well as the associated manufacturing and implementation challenges. There are a few examples of next-generation materials being used in the aircraft industry. Furthermore, regulatory and technical barriers to implementation emphasize the importance of certification processes and scalability considerations. The final part explores the next generation of recyclable and sustainable composite materials, which could potentially reduce the aerospace sector\u2019s impact on greenhouse gas emissions. These comprise future research pathways in advanced aerospace materials that will help lead the industry towards sustainability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18214922","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T04:26:29Z","timestamp":1761711989000},"page":"4922","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Emerging Materials for Durable and Sustainable Design of Aeronautic Structures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Pedro","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Aguiar-Branco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5513-9155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui Miranda","family":"Guedes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI-Instituto de Engenharia Mec\u00e2nica e Gest\u00e3o Industrial, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Georgantzinos, S.K., Giannopoulos, G.I., Stamoulis, K., and Markolefas, S. (2023). Composites in Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16227230"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parveez, B., Kittur, M.I., Badruddin, I.A., Kamangar, S., Hussien, M., and Umarfarooq, M.A. (2022). Scientific Advancements in Composite Materials for Aircraft Applications: A Review. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14225007"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2023.08.108","article-title":"A critical review of recent advances in the aerospace materials","volume":"113","author":"Soni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2018.01.001","article-title":"Recent advances in the development of aerospace materials","volume":"97","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1557\/mrs.2015.278","article-title":"Materials considerations for aerospace applications","volume":"40","author":"Boyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"MRS Bull."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2019.02.016","article-title":"The fatigue of carbon fibre reinforced plastics: A review","volume":"166","author":"Alam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kesarwani, S. (2017). Polymer Composites in Aviation Sector: A Brief Review. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol., 6.","DOI":"10.17577\/IJERTV6IS060291"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.20965\/ijat.2016.p0300","article-title":"Characteristics of Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) and Associated Challenges\u2014Focusing on Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting Resins (CFRTS) for Aircraft","volume":"10","author":"Kitano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msea.2005.08.064","article-title":"Carbon fiber reinforced plastics in aircraft construction","volume":"412","author":"Soutis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. A"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Hashish, M. (2013, January 9\u201311). Trimming of CFRP aircraft components. Proceedings of the WJTA-IMCA Conference and Expo, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whittle, J.W., Callander, K., Akure, M., Kachwala, F., and Koh, S.C.L. (2024). A new high-level life cycle assessment framework for evaluating environmental performance: An aviation case study. J. Clean. Prod., 471.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.143440"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1504\/IJSA.2016.082201","article-title":"Introducing green life cycle management in the civil aviation industry: The state-of-the-art and the future","volume":"2","author":"Zanetti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Zarnowska, A.I. (2023). Sustainability Assessment of a Sustainable Innovation for the Aviation Industry: Case Study of Bio Composites for Aircraft Interiors. [Master\u2019 Thesis, Delft University of Technology]. Available online: https:\/\/repository.tudelft.nl\/record\/uuid:888eb3b9-10f0-426a-a12b-1fa1de78191e."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arockiam, N.J., Jawaid, M., and Saba, N. (2018). Sustainable bio composites for aircraft components. Sustainable Composites for Aerospace Applications, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102131-6.00006-2"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jawaid, M., Salit, M., and Alothman, O. (2017). Green biocomposites for structural applications. Green Biocomposites, Springer. Green Energy and Technology.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-49382-4"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.1135","article-title":"Flammability and fire resistance of composites reinforced by natural fibers","volume":"19","year":"2008","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cong, X., Khalili, P., Zhu, C., Li, S., Li, J., Rudd, C., and Liu, X. (2021). Investigation of fire protection performance and mechanical properties of thin-ply bio-epoxy composites. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13050731"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3612","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.29194","article-title":"Thermo-mechanical performance of oil palm\/bamboo fiber reinforced bio epoxy hybrid composites","volume":"46","author":"Awad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thulo, M., Webo, W., Khoathane, M.C., and Malwela, T. (2025). Epoxy Reinforced Flax Fibre Composites for Interior Lining Panels of an Aircraft: Flammability Study. J. Eng., 2025.","DOI":"10.1049\/tje2.70092"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5518S","DOI":"10.1177\/1528083720924730","article-title":"Life-cycle and environmental impact assessments on processing of plant fibres and its bio-composites: A critical review","volume":"51","author":"Ramesh","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ind. Text."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bachmann, J., Yi, X., Tserpes, K., Sguazzo, C., Barbu, L.G., Tse, B., Soutis, C., Ram\u00f3n, E., Linuesa, H., and Bechtel, S. (2021). Towards a Circular Economy in the Aviation Sector Using Eco-Composites for Interior and Secondary Structures. Results and Recommendations from the EU\/China Project ECO-COMPASS. Aerospace, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace8050131"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ban, F., Ka, T.A., Peng, Y., Guan, S., Sun, J., Liu, Y., Qin, K., Fu, B., Noor-E-Khuda, S., and Tafsirojjaman, T. (2025). Comparative study of flexural behaviour of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) bars and strands. Polym. Test., 142.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2024.108686"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6179","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.29351","article-title":"Temperature effects on tensile and bending properties of carbon\/Kevlar hybrid fiber sandwich composites","volume":"46","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1177\/1528083719874479","article-title":"Mechanical Performance of glass\/epoxy composites enhanced by micro- and nanosized aluminum particles","volume":"51","author":"Megahed","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ind. Text."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koronis, G., Silva, A., and Ong, M. (2022). Comparison of Structural Performance and Environmental Impact of Epoxy Composites Modified by Glass and Flax Fabrics. J. Compos. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs6100284"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maccaferri, E., Benelli, T., Mazzocchetti, L., and Giorgini, L. (2022). A Critical Evaluation of Mechanical and Fire Performance of Flax Fiber Epoxy Resin Composites. Macromol. Symp., 405.","DOI":"10.1002\/masy.202100234"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ateeq, M. (2023). A state of art review on recycling and remanufacturing of the carbon fiber from carbon fiber polymer composite. Compos. Part C Open Access, 12.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomc.2023.100412"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butenegro, J.A., Bahrami, M., Abenojar, J., and Mart\u00ednez, M.\u00c1. (2021). Recent progress in carbon fiber reinforced polymers recycling: A review of recycling methods and reuse of carbon fibers. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14216401"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koumoulos, E.P., Trompeta, A.-F., Santos, R.-M., Martins, M., dos Santos, C.M., Iglesias, V., B\u00f6hm, R., Gong, G., Chiminelli, A., and Verpoest, I. (2019). Research and development in carbon fibers and advanced high-performance composites supply chain in Europe: A roadmap for challenges and the industrial uptake. J. Compos. Sci., 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs3030086"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2853","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-017-9901-5","article-title":"Impact of solvolysis process on both depolymerization kinetics of nylon 6 and recycling carbon fibers from waste composite","volume":"8","author":"Chaabani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valor."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, D., Kim, H.C., Sommacal, S., Stojcevski, F., Soo, V.K., Lipi\u0144ski, W., Morozov, E., Henderson, L.C., Compston, P., and Doolan, M. (2023). Improving mechanical and life cycle environmental performances of recycled CFRP automotive component by fibre architecture preservation. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf., 175.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2023.107749"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcney Yilmaz, B., Ferik, E., Birak, S.B., Demirel, M.O., Oz, Y., and Kaboglu, C. (2024). High-performance thermoplastic nanocomposites for aerospace applications: A review of synthesis, production, and analysis. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos.","DOI":"10.1177\/07316844241272035"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1179\/174328910X12647080902330","article-title":"PPSS: New thermoplastic for high-performance composite applications","volume":"39","author":"Meyer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plast. Rubber Compos."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998316653460","article-title":"Damage development in woven carbon fibre thermoplastic laminates with PPS and PEEK matrices: A comparative study","volume":"51","author":"Ivanov","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Roux, M., Giger, L., and Dransfeld, C. (2013, January 11\u201312). High-performance thermoplastic composite processing and recycling: From cradle to cradle. Proceedings of the SAMPE 34th International Technical Conference, Paris, France. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/239521864."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"136","article-title":"Welding of high-performance thermoplastic composites","volume":"12","author":"Rudolf","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pantelakis, S., and Tserpes, K. (2020). Thermoplastic composites for aerospace applications. Revolutionizing Aircraft Materials and Processes, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-35346-9"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, N., and Walker, T.R. (2024). Plastic recycling: A panacea or environmental pollution problem. npj Mater. Sustain., 2.","DOI":"10.1038\/s44296-024-00024-w"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"3455","article-title":"Recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastic and thermoset composites: A review","volume":"36","author":"Lemes","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podara, C., Termine, S., Modestou, M., Semitekolos, D., Tsirogiannis, C., Karamitrou, M., Trompeta, A.-F., Milickovic, T.K., and Charitidis, C. (2024). Recent Trends of Recycling and Upcycling of Polymers and Composites: A Comprehensive Review. Recycling, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling9030037"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2022.12.005","article-title":"Recovery of epoxy thermosets and their composites","volume":"64","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1212648","article-title":"Silica-like malleable materials from permanent organic networks","volume":"334","author":"Montarnal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmacrolett.4c00783","article-title":"Understanding the Topology Freezing Temperature of Vitrimer-Like Materials Through Complementary Structural and Rheological Analyses for Phase-Separated Network","volume":"14","author":"Hayashi","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Macro Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azcune, I., Huegun, A., Ruiz de Luzuriaga, A., Saiz, E., and Rekondo, A. (2021). The effect of matrix on shape properties of aromatic disulfide based epoxy vitrimers. Eur. Polym. J., 148.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2021.110362"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosarli, M., Foteinidis, G., Tsirka, K., Markaide, N., Ruiz de Luzuriaga, A., Calder\u00f3n Zapater\u00eda, D., Weidmann, S., and Paipetis, A.S. (2022). 3R Composites: Knockdown Effect Assessment and Repair Efficiency via Mechanical and NDE Testing. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12147269"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8012","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MA00654E","article-title":"Vitrimer composites: Current status and future challenges","volume":"3","author":"Schenk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.21741\/9781644902479-202","article-title":"Viscoelastic characterization of reformable epoxy vitrimers composites","volume":"28","author":"Palmieri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Proc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4345","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-024-13241-3","article-title":"Comparative life cycle assessment of aluminium and CFRP composites: The case of aerospace manufacturing","volume":"131","author":"Mills","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Tan, X., Wang, J., Xu, Y., Curran, R., Raghunathan, S., Gore, D., and Doherty, J. (2010). Cost-Efficient Materials in Aerospace: Composite vs Aluminium. Cost-Effective Engineering Design of Aircraft Structures, Springer."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2024). Lifecycle Assessment of Aerospace Materials: Aluminum and Composites, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA Technical Memorandum, TM-20240005376."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2018). Advanced Manufacturing and Materials for Aerospace Applications, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA Technical Memorandum, TM-20180001137."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120805202006","article-title":"The Boeing 787 Dreamliner\u2014A Case Study in Large-Scale Design Integration","volume":"52","author":"McMullin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13147","DOI":"10.1080\/15376494.2024.2333490","article-title":"Understanding and mitigating delamination in composite materials: A comprehensive review","volume":"31","author":"Gomes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mech. Adv. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-014-0824-0","article-title":"Environmental impact assessment of aviation emission reduction through the implementation of composite materials","volume":"20","author":"Timmis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Composites World (2025, July 04). Shared Composite Material Property Databases. Available online: https:\/\/www.compositesworld.com\/columns\/shared-composite-material-property-databases."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). FAA 2009, AC 20-107B\u2014Composite Aircraft Structure, Available online: https:\/\/www.faa.gov\/regulations_policies\/advisory_circulars\/index.cfm\/go\/document.information\/documentID\/99693."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Jawaid, M., and Thariq, M. (2018). 4\u2014Manufacturing techniques of composites for aerospace applications. Sustainable Composites for Aerospace Applications, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.3103\/S1052618817050041","article-title":"Composite-Friendly Approach to Certification of Advanced Materials and Fabrication Methods used in Aviation Industry","volume":"46","author":"Dubinskiia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mach. Manuf. Reliab."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1016\/S0266-3538(00)00048-8","article-title":"Multiscale analysis of composite materials and structures","volume":"60","author":"Fish","year":"2000","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwon, Y.W., Allen, D.H., and Talreja, R. (2008). Multi-Scale Modeling and Simulation of Composite Materials and Structures, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-68556-4"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Babu, S.S., and Mourad, A.-H.I. (2021, January 1\u20135). Multiscale modelling of multifunctional composites: A review. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Proceedings (IMECE), Virtual. V003T03A054."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castani\u00e9, B., Passieux, J.-C., P\u00e9ri\u00e9, J.-N., Bouvet, C., Dufour, J.-E., and Serra, J. (2024). Multiaxial loading of aeronautic composite structures at intermediate scale: A review of VERTEX developments. Compos. Part C, 13.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomc.2024.100439"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5130","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201101683","article-title":"Multiscale modeling of composite materials: A roadmap towards virtual testing","volume":"23","author":"Llorca","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s13272-016-0210-7","article-title":"Multiscale virtual testing: The roadmap to efficient design of composites for damage resistance and tolerance","volume":"7","author":"Lopes","year":"2016","journal-title":"CEAS Aeronaut. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watanabe, T., Kawagoe, Y., Hoshikawa, Y., Nakai, Y., Ryuzono, K., and Okabe, T. (2025). Multiscale model for bottom-up prediction of failure parameters of unidirectional carbon-fiber-reinforced composite lamina from the atomic to filament-scales, and its application to failure modeling of open-hole quasi-isotropic composite laminates. Int. J. Solids Struct., 308.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2024.113130"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dotoli, R., Gerardi, A., Polydoropoulou, P., Lampeas, G., Pantelakis, S., and Rovira, A.C. (2021). Virtual testing activities for the development of a hybrid thermoplastic composite material for the NHYTE project. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., 1024.","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1024\/1\/012025"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s11837-012-0509-8","article-title":"Multiscale Modeling of Composites: Toward Virtual Testing... and Beyond","volume":"65","author":"LLorca","year":"2013","journal-title":"JOM"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"20","article-title":"From prototype to serial production: 3 megatrends for composite production in aviation","volume":"159","author":"Steinkemper","year":"2024","journal-title":"JEC Compos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"23","article-title":"Aeronautical composites: Towards the industrialization of production","volume":"159","author":"Baily","year":"2024","journal-title":"JEC Compos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Gardner, J.M., Smith, J.G., Moore, E.H., Sauti, G., Zavada, S.R., Gordon, K.L., Jensen, B.D., and Siochi, E.J. (2024, January 9\u201312). Rapid Curing Isothermal Resins for Aerospace Applications. Proceedings of the 10th Composites and Advanced Materials Expo, CAMX 2024, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Li, Z., Zhang, H., Chen, J., Yang, W., Yu, T., Liu, W., and Li, Y. (2023). Manufacturing Technology of Lightweight Fiber-Reinforced Composite Structures in Aerospace: Current Situation and toward Intellectualization. Aerospace, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace10030206"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dyer, W.E., and Kumru, B. (2023). Polymers as Aerospace Structural Components: How to Reach Sustainability?. Macromol. Chem. Phys., 224.","DOI":"10.1002\/macp.202300186"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). Bisphenol A (BPA), Available online: https:\/\/www.niehs.nih.gov\/health\/topics\/agents\/sya-bpa\/."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"137","article-title":"Bio-Based Epoxies: Mechanical Properties and Free Volume Perspectives","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Binetruy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 21st European Conference on Composite Materials: Volume 1\u2014Industrial Applications, Nantes, France, 2\u20135 July 2024"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1021\/acssusresmgt.4c00207","article-title":"Exploring and Understanding the Recycling of a Bio-Based Epoxy Thermoset via Saponification","volume":"1","author":"Lahfaidh","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4187","DOI":"10.1039\/D0GC01250E","article-title":"Degradable and recyclable bio-based thermoset epoxy resins","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou, H., Li, J., Jin, M., and Ren, J. (2025). Eugenol-derived trifunctional epoxy resin: Intrinsic phosphorus-free flame retardancy and mechanical reinforcement for sustainable polymer alternatives. Polym. Degrad. Stab., 239.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2025.111394"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mezeix, L., Gupta, P., Bouvet, C., and Wongtimnoi, K. (2024). Mechanical Characterization of Recyclable and Non-Recyclable Bio-Epoxy Resins for Aerospace Applications. J. Compos. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs8050191"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terry, J.S., and Taylor, A.C. (2021). The properties and suitability of commercial bio-based epoxies for use in fiber-reinforced composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 138.","DOI":"10.1002\/app.50417"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capretti, M., Giammaria, V., Santulli, C., Boria, S., and Del Bianco, G. (2023). Use of Bio-Epoxies and Their Effect on the Performance of Polymer Composites: A Critical Review. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15244733"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramon, E., Sguazzo, C., and Moreira, P.M.G.P. (2018). A Review of Recent Research on Bio-Based Epoxy Systems for Engineering Applications and Potentialities in the Aviation Sector. Aerospace, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace5040110"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). Available online: https:\/\/www.changeclimate.com.au\/."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). A Renewable Bio-Epoxy for Space. Available online: https:\/\/ilaunch.space\/media-release\/a-renewable-bio-epoxy-for-space\/."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.3390\/ma2042369","article-title":"Fabrication and properties of carbon fibers","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). Sohio Acrylonitrile Process. Available online: https:\/\/www.acs.org\/education\/whatischemistry\/landmarks\/acrylonitrile.html."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baritto, M., Oni, A.O., and Kumar, A. (2023). The development of a techno-economic model for the assessment of asphaltene-based carbon fiber production. J. Clean. Prod., 428.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2023.139489"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vinod, A., Pulikkalparambil, H., Jagadeesh, P., Rangappa, S.M., and Siengchin, S. (2023). Recent advancements in lignocellulose biomass-based carbon fiber: Synthesis, properties, and applications. Heliyon, 9.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e13614"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2025, July 04). DSIAC TECHNICAL INQUIRY (TI) RESPONSE REPORT: Cellulosic Precursor Carbon Fibers, Report Number: DSIAC-2019-1008. Available online: https:\/\/dsiac.dtic.mil\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/dsiac-2190994.pdf."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, A., Amin, M.M., Bari, M.A.A., Hossain, M.M., and Siddiquee, M.N. (2025). Carbon fiber from petroleum pitch: Current advances and potential applications. Energy Nexus, 17.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nexus.2024.100355"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, L., Liu, H., Yang, Y., Dai, L., and Si, C. (2025). Lignin-derived carbon fibers: A green path from biomass to advanced materials. Carbon Energy, 7.","DOI":"10.1002\/cey2.662"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, N.-D., Varley, R.J., Hummel, M., Trogen, M., and Byrne, N. (2022). A review of future directions in the development of sustainable carbon fiber from bio-based precursors. Mater. Today Sustain., 20.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtsust.2022.100251"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y., Gao, X., Nguyen, T.T., Wu, J., Guo, M., Liu, W., and Du, C. (2022). Green and Low-Cost Natural Lignocellulosic Biomass-Based Carbon Fibers\u2014Processing, Properties, and Applications in Sports Equipment: A Review. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14132591"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan1059","article-title":"Renewable acrylonitrile production","volume":"358","author":"Karp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davey, S. (2018). Sustainability: Sweet new route to acrylonitrile. Nat. Rev. Chem., 2.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41570-017-0110"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2025, August 11). Developing Bio-Based Composites That Are Fit to Fly. Available online: https:\/\/www.airbus.com\/en\/newsroom\/stories\/2024-06-developing-bio-based-composites-that-are-fit-to-fly."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anagnostopoulou, A., Sotiropoulos, D., and Tserpes, K. (2025). A Robust Sustainability Assessment Methodology for Aircraft Parts: Application to a Fuselage Panel. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17083299"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"68","article-title":"Repair of thermoplastic composites: An overview","volume":"8","author":"Hubert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Manuf. Polym. Compos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3084","DOI":"10.1177\/08927057231222820","article-title":"Recent advancements in thermoplastic composite materials in aerospace industry","volume":"37","author":"Ozturk","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4183","DOI":"10.1177\/00219983211033891","article-title":"Static and fatigue behavior of induction-welded single lap carbon fiber reinforced polyetherketoneketone thermoplastic composite joints","volume":"55","author":"Kwon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, C., Gui, S., Xu, R., Wang, W., Fu, Z., and Ji, W. (2025). Effects of moisture and temperature on shear strength of resistance welded joints of CF\/PEEK composites. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater.","DOI":"10.1177\/08927057251344261"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1080\/09243046.2022.2128267","article-title":"Effect of hygrothermal condition on single-lab shear behavior of induction-welded CF\/PEKK thermoplastic composites","volume":"32","author":"Jeong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1177\/0892705713490714","article-title":"Characterization of resistance-welded thermoplastic composite double-lap joints under static and fatigue loading","volume":"28","author":"Chazerain","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Tyrrell, M. (2025, July 04). Airbus Unveils New Thermoplastic Aircraft Fuselage Design. Aerospace Manufacturing. Available online: https:\/\/www.aero-mag.com\/airbus-thermoplastic-fuselage-design-clean-sky-2-15102024."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Improving Thermoplastic Composites for Next-Generation Fuselage. Available online: https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/article\/id\/443645-improving-thermoplastic-composites-for-next-generation-fuselage."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2015.06.021","article-title":"Nanofibre bridging as a toughening mechanism in carbon\/epoxy composite laminates interleaved with electrospun polyamide nanofibrous veils","volume":"117","author":"Daelemans","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monteser\u00edn, C., Blanco, M., Murillo, N., P\u00e9rez-M\u00e1rquez, A., Maudes, J., Gayoso, J., Laza, J.M., Aranzabe, E., and Vilas, J.L. (2018). Effect of different types of electrospun polyamide 6 nanofibres on the mechanical properties of carbon fibre\/epoxy composites. Polymers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym10111190"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.repl.2017.03.006","article-title":"Nanofiber interleaving veils for improving the performance of composite laminates","volume":"61","author":"Beckermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reinf. Plast."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blythe, A., Fox, B., Nikzad, M., Eisenbart, B., and Chai, B.X. (2022). Stiffness Degradation under Cyclic Loading Using Three-Point Bending of Hybridised Carbon\/Glass Fibres with a Polyamide 6,6 Nanofibre Interlayer. J. Compos. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs6090270"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blythe, A., Fox, B., Nikzad, M., Eisenbart, B., Chai, B.X., Blanchard, P., and Dahl, J. (2022). Evaluation of the Failure Mechanism in Polyamide Nanofibre Veil Toughened Hybrid Carbon\/Glass Fibre Composites. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15248877"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dt.2023.02.025","article-title":"A Review on Lightweight Materials for Defence Applications: Present and Future Developments","volume":"24","author":"Siengchin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Def. Technol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.13111\/2066-8201.2013.5.3.14","article-title":"Advanced Composite Materials of the Future in Aerospace Industry","volume":"5","author":"Mrazova","year":"2013","journal-title":"INCAS BULLETIN"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, A., Park, B., Sung, H., Yong, H., Chae, J., and Choi, S. (2021). An Analysis of the Competitive Actions of Boeing and Airbus in the Aerospace Industry Based on the Competitive Dynamics Model. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/joitmc7030192"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/21\/4922\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T04:47:02Z","timestamp":1761713222000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/18\/21\/4922"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ma18214922"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma18214922","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]}}}