{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T16:55:40Z","timestamp":1768668940281,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2022\/45\/N\/ST8\/01277 (PRELUDIUM-21)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022\/45\/N\/ST8\/01277 (PRELUDIUM-21)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early-age shrinkage in 3D-printed concrete constitutes a critical applied challenge due to the rapid development of deformations and the absence of conventional reinforcement systems. From a scientific standpoint, a clear knowledge gap exists in materials science concerning the reliable quantification of very small, rapidly evolving strains in fresh and early-age cementitious materials produced by additive manufacturing. This study investigates practical and low-cost alternatives to commercial optical systems for monitoring early-age shrinkage in 3D-printed concrete, a key challenge given the rapid deformation of printed elements and their typical lack of reinforcement. The work focuses on identifying both the most precise method for capturing minor, fast-developing strains and affordable tools suitable for laboratories without access to advanced equipment. Three mixtures with different aggregate types were examined to broaden the applicability of the findings and to evaluate how aggregate selection affects fresh properties, hardened performance, and shrinkage behavior. Shrinkage measurements were carried out using a commercial digital image correlation system, which served as the reference method, along with simplified optical setups based on a smartphone camera and a GoPro device. Additional measurements were performed with laser displacement sensors and Linear Variable Differential Transformer LVDT transducers mounted in a dedicated fixture. Results were compared with the standardized linear shrinkage test to assess precision, stability, and the influence of curing conditions. The findings show that early-age shrinkage must be monitored immediately after printing and under controlled environmental conditions. When the results obtained after 12 h of measurement were compared with the values recorded using the commercial reference system, differences of 19%, 13%, 16%, and 14% were observed for the smartphone-based method, the GoPro system, the laser sensors, and the LVDT transducers, respectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19020344","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T11:13:21Z","timestamp":1768475601000},"page":"344","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Early-Age Shrinkage Monitoring of 3D-Printed Cementitious Mixtures: Comparison of Measuring Techniques and Low-Cost Alternatives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6622-4539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karol","family":"Federowicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7542-8093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Sibera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0242-8804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikola","family":"To\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7949-1831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Zieli\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1092-1359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawel","family":"Sikora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, M.A., Zhumabekova, A., Paul, S.C., and Kim, J.R. (2020). A Review of 3D Printing in Construction and Its Impact on the Labor Market. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12208492"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"102872","article-title":"Toolpath-Based Design for 3D Concrete Printing of Carbon-Efficient Architectural Structures","volume":"56","author":"Breseghello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f, D., and Kartal, S.B. (2023). Advances and Current Trends in 3D Concrete Printing for Engineering Structures. International Conference on Innovative Academic Studies, All Sciences Academy."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.112200","article-title":"Structural Design Methodology for Low-Rise 3D Printed Concrete (3DPC) Buildings Subjected to Non-Seismic Loading: Description, Application and Validation","volume":"105","author":"Sharma","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bayat, M., Kharel, S., and Li, J. (2025). On the Effects of Additive Manufacturing on Affordable Housing Development: A Review. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17125328"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Sharma, P. (2025, September 01). How 3D Printing Technology Can Be Used to Tackle the Global Housing Crisis?. Available online: https:\/\/parametric-architecture.com\/how-3d-printing-technology-can-be-used-to-tackle-the-global-housing-crisis\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.21809\/rilemtechlett.2024.201","article-title":"Standardization Aspects of Concrete 3D Printing","volume":"9","author":"Vasilic","year":"2025","journal-title":"RILEM Tech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.21809\/rilemtechlett.2023.197","article-title":"The Status Quo of 3D Concrete Printing: Are We There Yet?","volume":"8","author":"Wolfs","year":"2024","journal-title":"RILEM Tech. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"e01320","article-title":"Insight into the Microstructural and Durability Characteristics of 3D Printed Concrete: Cast versus Printed Specimens","volume":"17","author":"Sikora","year":"2022","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.105104","article-title":"Assessment of Pore Structure Characteristics and Tortuosity of 3D Printed Concrete Using Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry and X-Ray Tomography","volume":"140","author":"Mohan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132581","article-title":"Effect of Pore Structure on Durability and Mechanical Performance of 3D Printed Concrete","volume":"400","author":"Du","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bradshaw, J., Si, W., Khan, M., and McNally, C. (2025). Emerging Insights into the Durability of 3D-Printed Concrete: Recent Advances in Mix Design Parameters and Testing. Designs, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/designs9040085"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.113233","article-title":"A Review of Shrinkage and Restrained Shrinkage Cracking in 3D Concrete Printing","volume":"111","author":"Els","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2024.107512","article-title":"Specifics of Plastic Shrinkage in 3D-Printed Concrete Elements","volume":"184","author":"Markin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.102059","article-title":"Early Age Shrinkage Phenomena of 3D Printed Cementitious Materials with Superabsorbent Polymers","volume":"35","author":"Snoeck","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132564","article-title":"Plastic Shrinkage of 3D Printed Concrete under Different Self-Weight of Upper Layers","volume":"399","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1002\/suco.202200088","article-title":"3D Printed Concrete as Stay-in-place Formwork: Mechanics during Casting and Curing","volume":"24","author":"Bekaert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Struct. Concr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2011.12.003","article-title":"Hardened Properties of High-Performance Printing Concrete","volume":"42","author":"Le","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2002). Products and Systems for the Protection and Repair of Concrete Structures\u2014Test Methods\u2014Part 4: Determination of Shrinkage and Expansion (Standard No. EN 12617-4:2002)."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-021-01632-x","article-title":"Hardened Properties and Durability of Large-Scale 3D Printed Cement-Based Materials","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106862","article-title":"Mitigating Early Age Cracking in 3D Printed Concrete Using Fibres, Superabsorbent Polymers, Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures, B-CSA Cement and Curing Measures","volume":"159","author":"Moelich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2020.108313","article-title":"Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in 3D Printed Concrete","volume":"200","author":"Moelich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012036","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2423\/1\/012036","article-title":"Methods for Measuring Plastic Shrinkage and Related Cracking of 3D-Printed Concrete","volume":"2423","author":"Markin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106800","article-title":"A Roadmap for Quality Control of Hardening and Hardened Printed Concrete","volume":"157","author":"Mechtcherine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2024.107652","article-title":"Additive Construction in Practice\u2014Realities of Acceptance Criteria","volume":"186","author":"Kreiger","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 16: Determination of the Shrinkage of Concrete (Standard No. EN 12390-16:2019)."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2024.100529","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of Ternary Blended Cement with Clay and Engineering Brick Aggregate for High-Performance 3D Printing","volume":"20","author":"Chougan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2023.112246","article-title":"Development of 3D Printed Heavyweight Concrete (3DPHWC) Containing Magnetite Aggregate","volume":"233","author":"Federowicz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2000). Methods for Testing Mortars for Masonry\u2014Part 6: Determination of Bulk Density of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-6:2000)."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(1998). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 7: Determination of Air Content of Fresh Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-7:1998)."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2021). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 13: Determination of Secant Modulus of Elasticity in Compression (Standard No. EN 12390-13:2021)."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2019). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 11: Determination of Flexural and Compressive Strength of Hardened Mortar (Standard No. EN 1015-11:2019)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Federowicz, K., Kaszy\u0144ska, M., Zieli\u0144ski, A., and Hoffmann, M. (2020). Effect of Curing Methods on Shrinkage Development in 3D-Printed Concrete. Materials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13112590"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.05.006","article-title":"Quantification of Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in Mortars Using Digital Image Correlation","volume":"123","author":"Bertelsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2023.105050","article-title":"Quantification of Plastic Shrinkage and Plastic Shrinkage Cracking of the 3D Printable Concretes Using 2D Digital Image Correlation","volume":"139","author":"Markin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.154","article-title":"An Overview on the Effect of Internal Curing on Shrinkage of High Performance Cement-Based Materials","volume":"146","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ten\u00f3rio Filho, J.R., De Belie, N., and Snoeck, D. (2024). The Effects of Internal Curing and Shrinkage Cracking Avoidance on the Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Walls with Superabsorbent Polymers. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14166901"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Wang, K., Taylor, P.C., and Gu, Y. (2024). Superabsorbent Polymers for Internal Curing Concrete: An Additional Review on Characteristics, Effects, and Applications. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17225462"}],"container-title":["Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/344\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T05:35:21Z","timestamp":1768628121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1996-1944\/19\/2\/344"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ma19020344"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ma19020344","relation":{},"ISSN":["1996-1944"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1996-1944","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]}}}