{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T09:50:43Z","timestamp":1774259443544,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":181,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773964800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe research and innovation program","award":["101069686 (PULSELiON)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101069686 (PULSELiON)"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["FCT UID\/50022\/2025\u2014LAETA (LT06)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FCT UID\/50022\/2025\u2014LAETA (LT06)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Materials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anode-less battery architectures, which eliminate the host anode material, have attracted considerable attention as a promising approach to increase energy density, simplify cell manufacturing, and improve safety in next-generation energy storage systems. This review provides a structured and integrative overview on the current research landscape of anode-less cells, spanning both liquid- and solid-electrolyte technologies. It first introduces the fundamental principles, key advantages, and inherent challenges of the anode-less concept. Advanced characterization techniques, including electrochemical, interfacial, morphological, and operando approaches, are then discussed as essential tools for probing metal plating\/stripping behavior and degradation mechanisms. The core of the review examines how system design governs performance, addressing strategies for liquid electrolytes, including current collector design, electrolyte formulation, and deposition control, as well as solid electrolytes, with an emphasis on interfacial engineering, fundamental limitations, and extensions to Na- and K-based batteries. By integrating insights across these systems, the review identifies critical challenges, including unstable solid-electrolyte interphases, dendrite formation, and interfacial contact loss. Finally, a development pyramid is introduced as a conceptual framework linking fundamental research to practical implementation, outlining key priorities from interface control and full-cell compatibility to long-term reliability while also highlighting industrial pathways toward hybrid and fully solid-state anode-less batteries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ma19061232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T08:49:28Z","timestamp":1774255768000},"page":"1232","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Anode-Less (Anode-Free) Batteries: From Fundamental Principles to Practical Pathways Toward Solid-State Implementation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8933-2751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela Carvalho","family":"Baptista","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"MatER\u2014Materials for Energy Research Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4577-2154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Helena","family":"Braga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"MatER\u2014Materials for Energy Research Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.esci.2021.10.002","article-title":"Quasi-Compensatory Effect in Emerging Anode-Free Lithium Batteries","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"eScience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2020.105344","article-title":"Recently Advances and Perspectives of Anode-Free Rechargeable Batteries","volume":"78","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202400585","DOI":"10.1002\/batt.202400585","article-title":"Anode-Free Solid-State Rechargeable Batteries: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Design Strategies","volume":"8","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Batter. 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