{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T05:50:21Z","timestamp":1777528221381,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]],"date-time":"2022-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Machines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A major effort is put into the production of green energy as a countermeasure to climatic changes and sustainability. Thus, the energy industry is currently betting on offshore wind energy, using wind turbines with fixed and floating platforms. This technology can benefit greatly from interventive autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) to assist in the maintenance and control of underwater structures. A wireless charger system can extend the time the AUV remains underwater, by allowing it to charge its batteries through a docking station. The present work details the development process of a housing component for a wireless charging system to be implemented in an AUV, addressed as wireless charger housing (WCH), from the concept stage to the final physical verification and operation stage. The wireless charger system prepared in this research aims to improve the longevity of the vehicle mission, without having to return to the surface, by enabling battery charging at a docking station. This product was designed following a design for excellence (DfX) and modular design philosophy, implementing visual scorecards to measure the success of certain design aspects. For an adequate choice of materials, the Ashby method was implemented. The structural performance of the prototypes was validated via a linear static finite element analysis (FEA). These prototypes were further physically verified in a hyperbaric chamber. Results showed that the application of FEA, together with well-defined design goals, enable the WCH optimisation while ensuring up to 75% power efficiency. This methodology produced a system capable of transmitting energy for underwater robotic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/machines10040232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,27]],"date-time":"2022-03-27T21:29:36Z","timestamp":1648416576000},"page":"232","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Application of a Design for Excellence Methodology for a Wireless Charger Housing in Underwater Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1128-9108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Nuno de Almeida Arrojado da Silva","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4167-4434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raul Duarte Salgueiral Gomes","family":"Campilho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Andry Maykol Gomes","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2020.109711","article-title":"The Offshore-Onshore Conundrum: Preferences for Wind Energy Considering Spatial Data in Denmark","volume":"121","author":"Ladenburg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsr.2018.10.016","article-title":"Critical Review of Offshore Wind Turbine Energy Production and Site Potential Assessment","volume":"167","author":"Arrambide","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electr. Power Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, D.F., Pereira, M., Matos, A., and Pinto, A.M. (2021, January 20\u201323). DIIUS\u2014Distributed Perception for Inspection of Aquatic Structures. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2021: San Diego-Porto, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS44145.2021.9705939"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2019.07.014","article-title":"MARESye: A Hybrid Imaging System for Underwater Robotic Applications","volume":"55","author":"Pinto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.1245","article-title":"A Robust Force Control Approach for Underwater Vehicle Manipulator Systems","volume":"50","author":"Nikou","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-Pap. OnLine"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Moore, S.W., Bohm, H., and Jensen, V. (2010). Underwater Robotics: Science, Design & Fabrication, Marine Advanced Technology Education (MATE) Center."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2019.04.011","article-title":"Advancements in the Field of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle","volume":"181","author":"Sahoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, B., Han, X., and Hui, N. (2021). System Identification and Controller Design of a Novel Autonomous Underwater Vehicle. Machines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines9060109"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2018.06.018","article-title":"Underwater Manipulators: A Review","volume":"163","author":"Coleman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dt.2020.11.002","article-title":"Design Optimization of Egg-Shaped Composite Submersible Pressure Hull for Minimum Buoyancy Factor","volume":"17","author":"Imran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Def. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kim, Y.H., Jo, Y.D., Bae, S.Y., and Sin, S.J. (2010, January 24\u201327). Material Design of Al\/CFRP Hybrid Composites for the Hull of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle. Proceedings of the OCEANS\u201910 IEEE, Sydney, NSW, Australia."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2019.106184","article-title":"Optimized Design of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle, for Exploration in the Caribbean Sea","volume":"187","author":"Ignacio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"599","article-title":"Hull Shape Optimization for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Using CFD","volume":"10","author":"Gao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Comput. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2008.08.006","article-title":"Hull Hydrodynamic Optimization of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Operating at Snorkeling Depth","volume":"36","author":"Alvarez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2020.107889","article-title":"Fish-like Shaped Robot for Underwater Surveillance and Reconnaissance\u2013Hull Design and Study of Drag and Noise","volume":"217","author":"Marcin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpvp.2019.103951","article-title":"Strength and Stability of Spherical Pressure Hulls with Different Viewport Structures","volume":"176","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Press. Vessel. Pip."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2018.09.463","article-title":"Development and Design of a Compact Autonomous Underwater Vehicle: Zeno AUV","volume":"51","author":"Gelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"IFAC-Pap. OnLine"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.7734\/COSEIK.2012.25.6.477","article-title":"Optimal Design of Deep-Sea Pressure Hulls Using CAE Tools","volume":"25","author":"Jeong","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Struct. Eng. Inst. Korea"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2015.04.024","article-title":"Design and Analysis of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic Body Frame for Multi-Legged Subsea Walking Robot, Crabster","volume":"102","author":"Yoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sathianarayanan, D., Pranesh, S.B., Chowdhury, T., Chandrasekar, E., Murugesan, M., Radhakrishnan, M., Subramanian, A.N., Ramadass, G.A., and Atmanand, M.A. (2017, January 21\u201324). Mechanical Engineering Challenges in the Development of Deepwater ROV (ROSUB 6000). Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE OES International Symposium on Underwater Technology, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/UT.2017.7890286"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2019.06.002","article-title":"Modular Design: Implementing Proven Engineering Principles in Biotechnology","volume":"37","author":"Garcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2019.12.277","article-title":"Design of an Underwater Vehicle for Use in Basin Experiments, Development of MARIN\u2019s Modular AUV","volume":"52","author":"Cozijn","year":"2019","journal-title":"IFAC-Pap. OnLine"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allotta, B., Baines, S., Bartolini, F., Bellavia, F., Colombo, C., Conti, R., Costanzi, R., Dede, C., Fanfani, M., and Gelli, J. (2015, January 18\u201321). Design of a Modular Autonomous Underwater Vehicle for Archaeological Investigations. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE OCEANS 2015-Genova: Discovering Sustainable Ocean Energy for a New World, Genova, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS-Genova.2015.7271398"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2020.120470","article-title":"The Role of Product Development Practices on New Product Performance: Evidence from Nigeria\u2019s Financial Services Providers","volume":"164","author":"Iheanachor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2014.06.023","article-title":"Analysis and Integration of Design for X Approaches in Lean Design as Basis for a Lifecycle Optimized Product Design","volume":"15","author":"Dombrowski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2018.02.194","article-title":"The Industrial Symbiosis in the Product Development: An Approach through the DFIS","volume":"21","author":"Mantese","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2017.12.003","article-title":"Lean Design-for-X Methodology: Integrating Modular Design, Structural Optimization and Ecodesign in a Machine Tool Case Study","volume":"69","author":"Baptista","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2020.105278","article-title":"Structural Design of an Agricultural Backhoe Using TA, FEA, RSM and ANN","volume":"172","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mspro.2014.07.073","article-title":"Selection of Material for Optimal Design Using Multi-Criteria Decision Making","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rinma.2020.100115","article-title":"Application of MCDM Method in Material Selection for Optimal Design: A Review","volume":"7","author":"Emovon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Results Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Ashby, M.F. (2017). Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2011.12.048","article-title":"Multi-Objective Material Selection for Wind Turbine Blade and Tower: Ashby\u2019s Approach","volume":"37","author":"Rashedi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.07.058","article-title":"Material Selection for Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) Using Ashby\u2019s Approach","volume":"157","author":"Mehmood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2012.08.003","article-title":"Hard Coating Material Selection Using Multi-Criteria Decision Making","volume":"44","author":"Chauhan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2015.7096295","article-title":"Wireless Charger Networking for Mobile Devices: Fundamentals, Standards, and Applications","volume":"22","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1017\/wpt.2020.3","article-title":"Design Considerations for Contact-Less Underwater Power Delivery: A Systematic Review and Critical Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wirel. Power Transf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2019.2953015","article-title":"Review of Wireless Charging Systems for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles","volume":"46","author":"Teeneti","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6622","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2017.2757015","article-title":"Design and Analysis of a Three-Phase Wireless Charging System for Lightweight Autonomous Underwater Vehicles","volume":"33","author":"Kan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agostinho, L.R., Ricardo, N.C., Silva, R.J., and Pinto, A.M. (2021, January 28\u201329). A Modular Inductive Wireless Charging Solution for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Conference on Autonomous Robot Systems and Competitions, ICARSC, Santa Maria da Feira, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICARSC52212.2021.9429785"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65432","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2984530","article-title":"A Circumferential Coupled Dipole-Coil Magnetic Coupler for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Wireless Charging Applications","volume":"8","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1049\/piee.1973.0060","article-title":"Degradation Mechanisms of Mechanical Connectors on Aluminium Conductors","volume":"120","author":"Naybour","year":"1973","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Xia, C., and Yuan, X. (2018). Study of the Circular Flat Spiral Coil Structure Effect on Wireless Power Transfer System Performance. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11112875"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinto, A.M., Marques, J.V.A., Campos, D.F., Abreu, N., Matos, A., Jussi, M., Berglund, R., Halme, J., Tikka, P., and Formiga, J. (2021, January 20\u201323). ATLANTIS\u2014The Atlantic Testing Platform for Maritime Robotics. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2021: San Diego-Porto, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS44145.2021.9706059"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.109302","article-title":"The State-of-the-Arts of Wireless Electric Vehicle Charging via Magnetic Resonance: Principles, Standards and Core Technologies","volume":"114","author":"Niu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"97","article-title":"Ceramics for Medical Applications","volume":"29","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.2012","article-title":"Preparation and Characterization of Polyoxymethylene-Copolymer\/Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposites for Long-Term Bone Implants","volume":"23","author":"Pielichowska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2004.09.074","article-title":"Comparison of Nanocomposites Based on Nylon 6 and Nylon 66","volume":"45","author":"Chavarria","year":"2004","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2016.02.024","article-title":"Effect of Low-Temperature Plasma on Chitosan-Coated PEEK Polymer Characteristics","volume":"78","author":"Wiacek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2021.108745","article-title":"Effect of Crystallinity on the Mechanical Behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polyethylene-Terephthalate (CF\/PET) Composites Considering Temperature Conditions","volume":"207","author":"Um","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marstruc.2018.02.006","article-title":"Corrosion Behaviour of Aluminium Alloys in Deep-Sea Environment: A Review and the KM3NeT Test Results","volume":"59","author":"Canepa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Struct."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.04.641","article-title":"A Comparative Study of 5083 Aluminium Alloy and 316L Stainless Steel for Shipbuilding Material","volume":"28","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2019.108284","article-title":"Underwater Wire-Feed Laser Deposition of the Ti\u20136Al\u20134V Titanium Alloy","volume":"186","author":"Fu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.corsci.2005.05.053","article-title":"The Corrosion of Nickel-Aluminium Bronze in Seawater","volume":"47","author":"Wharton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Corros. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1177\/0954405414525142","article-title":"Machining Behaviour of Three High-Performance Engineering Plastics","volume":"229","author":"Panzera","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slavov, S., and Konsulova-Bakalova, M. (2019). Optimizing Weight of Housing Elements of Two-Stage Reducer by Using the Topology Management Optimization Capabilities Integrated in SOLIDWORKS: A Case Study. Machines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines7010009"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2022, January 17). Acetal POM-H Natural\u2014TECAFORM AD Natural|Ensinger. Available online: https:\/\/www.ensingerplastics.com\/en\/shapes\/products\/acetal-tecaform-ad-natural-."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2022, January 17). Aluminum 6061-T6; 6061-T651. Available online: http:\/\/www.matweb.com\/search\/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=b8d536e0b9b54bd7b69e4124d8f1d20a."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.09.079","article-title":"Investigation on Corrosion Behaviour of Aluminium 6061-T6 Alloy in Acidic, Alkaline and Salt Medium","volume":"45","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1119\/1.11262","article-title":"Eddy Currents: Levitation, Metal Detectors, and Induction Heating","volume":"46","author":"Wouch","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."}],"container-title":["Machines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1702\/10\/4\/232\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:43:55Z","timestamp":1760136235000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-1702\/10\/4\/232"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["machines10040232"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/machines10040232","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-1702"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-1702","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]}}}