{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:29:20Z","timestamp":1760236160284,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,26]],"date-time":"2021-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635206400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/147878\/2019","UIDB\/04436\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/147878\/2019","UIDB\/04436\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Machines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neurological diseases may reduce Tibialis Anterior (TA) muscle recruitment capacity causing gait disorders, such as drop foot (DF). The majority of DF patients still retain excitable nerves and muscles which makes Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) an adequate technique to restore lost mobility. Recent studies suggest the need for developing personalized and assist-as-needed control strategies for wearable FES in order to promote natural and functional movements while reducing the early onset of fatigue. This study contributes to a real-time implementation of a trajectory tracking FES control strategy for personalized DF correction. This strategy combines a feedforward Non-Linear Autoregressive Neural Network with Exogenous inputs (NARXNN) with a feedback PD controller. This control strategy advances with a user-specific TA muscle model achieved by the NARXNN\u2019s ability to model dynamic systems relying on the foot angle and angular velocity as inputs. A closed-loop, fully wearable stimulation system was achieved using an ISTim stimulator and wearable inertial sensor for electrical stimulation and user\u2019s kinematic gait sensing, respectively. Results showed that the NARXNN architecture with 2 hidden layers and 10 neurons provided the highest performance for modelling the kinematic behaviour of the TA muscle. The proposed trajectory tracking control revealed a low discrepancy between real and reference foot trajectories (goodness of fit = 77.87%) and time-effectiveness for correctly stimulating the TA muscle towards a natural gait and DF correction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/machines9110253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,26]],"date-time":"2021-10-26T23:54:33Z","timestamp":1635292473000},"page":"253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Functional Electrical Stimulation System for Drop Foot Correction Using a Dynamic NARX Neural Network"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9666-6832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sim\u00e3o","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), Industrial Electronics Department, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Correia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), Industrial Electronics Department, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Joana","family":"Figueiredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), Industrial Electronics Department, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3789-6384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge M.","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IDMEC, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0023-7203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina P.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (CMEMS), Industrial Electronics Department, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2007.01.001","article-title":"Effects of stimulation frequency versus pulse duration modulation on muscle fatigue","volume":"18","author":"Kesar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. 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