{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T18:39:28Z","timestamp":1776278368438,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"project RealForm","award":["2022.02370.PTDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.02370.PTDC"]}]},{"name":"project RealForm","award":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and by the Doctoral","award":["2022.02370.PTDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.02370.PTDC"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and by the Doctoral","award":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"]}]},{"name":"European Social Fund (FSE) and Portuguese National Funds from MCTES","award":["2022.02370.PTDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.02370.PTDC"]}]},{"name":"European Social Fund (FSE) and Portuguese National Funds from MCTES","award":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/12657\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The continuous evolution of metallic alloys in the automotive industry has led to the development of more advanced and flexible constitutive models that attempt to accurately describe the various fundamental properties and behavior of these materials. These models have become increasingly complex, incorporating a larger number of parameters that require an accurate calibration procedure to fit the constitutive parameters with experimental data. In this context, machine learning (ML) methodologies have the potential to advance material constitutive modeling, enhancing the efficiency of the material parameter calibration procedure. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) stand out among various learning algorithms due to their ability to process sequential data and overcome limitations imposed by nonlinearities and multiple parameters involved in phenomenological models. This study explores the modeling capabilities of long short-term memory (LSTM) structures, a type of RNN, in predicting the hardening behavior of a sheet metal material using the results of a standardized experimental three-point bending test, with the aim of extending this methodology to other experimental tests and constitutive models. Additionally, a variable analysis is performed to select the most important variables for this experimental test and assess the influence of friction, material thickness, and elastic and plastic properties on the accuracy of predictions made by neural networks. The required data for designing and training the network solutions are collected from numerical simulations using finite element methodology (FEM), which are subsequently validated by experiments. The results demonstrate that the proposed LSTM-based approach outperforms traditional identification techniques in predicting the material hardening parameters. This suggests that the developed procedure can be effectively applied to efficiently characterize different materials, especially those extensively used in industrial applications, ranging from mild steels to advanced high-strength steels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/met14010084","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T07:50:48Z","timestamp":1704873048000},"page":"84","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Recurrent Neural Networks and Three-Point Bending Test on the Identification of Material Hardening Parameters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1854-8851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Cruz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8112-5689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel R.","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Abel D.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5282-906X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui L.","family":"Amaral","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jose Cesar","family":"de Sa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias s\/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3692-585X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose V.","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes-Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE) Associated Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, R. Lu\u00eds Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4047732","article-title":"Opportunities and Challenges in Metal Forming for Lightweighting: Review and Future Work","volume":"142","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagoner, R.H. (2004). Sheet Springback. Contin. Scale Simul. Eng. Mater. Fundam. Microstruct. 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