{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T05:26:35Z","timestamp":1767072395770,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["project reference UIDB\/50022\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["project reference UIDB\/50022\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Enhancing the local mechanical response of low-carbon cast steels remains essential for improving their performance in wear-intensive environments. In this work, a low-carbon cast steel was locally modified through the in situ formation of TiC particles via melt reaction with pressed Ti\u2013Al\u2013C powders. Advanced microstructural characterization (SEM\/EDS, EBSD, and TEM) revealed a heterogeneous TiC-reinforced composite microstructure containing ~36 vol.% TiC with particle sizes between 0.73 and 3.88 \u03bcm. The reinforced region exhibited a substantial increase in hardness, from 160 \u00b1 5 HV30 in the base steel to 407 \u00b1 78 HV30, resulting from the synergistic contribution of TiC particles, fine \u03ba-carbides, and a martensitic matrix. Nanoindentation revealed a strong mechanical contrast between phases, with TiC achieving 25.70 \u00b1 7.76 GPa compared to 4.68 \u00b1 1.09 GPa for the base metal matrix. Micro-abrasion tests showed a 24% reduction in wear rate, accompanied by shallower grooves and reduced plastic deformation. These findings demonstrate that in situ TiC formation, combined with \u03ba-carbide precipitation, provides an effective strategy for improving local hardness and abrasive wear resistance in low-carbon cast steels. The results highlight the potential of in situ composite formation as an effective microstructural engineering strategy for next-generation wear-resistant cast steels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/met16010019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T23:52:27Z","timestamp":1766706747000},"page":"19","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design of Wear-Resistant Low-Carbon Cast Steel Through In Situ TiC-MMC Local Reinforcement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8615-7612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aida B.","family":"Moreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3667-0562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel F.","family":"Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7698-5465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura M. M.","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"LAETA\/INEGI-Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2020.203263","article-title":"Impact-abrasive and abrasive wear behavior of low carbon steels with a range of hardness-toughness properties","volume":"450\u2013451","author":"Saha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Chen, Y., Wei, S., Zuo, L., and Mao, F. (2019). Effect of carbon content on abrasive impact wear behavior of Cr-Si-Mn low alloy wear resistant cast steels. Front. Mater., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2019.00153"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1080\/02670836.2019.1615669","article-title":"Metallurgical aspects of steels designed to resist abrasion, and impact-abrasion wear","volume":"35","author":"Chintha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dossett, J.L., and Totten, G.E. (2014). Heat Treating of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels. Metals Handbook-Heat Treating of Irons and Steels, ASM International.","DOI":"10.31399\/asm.hb.v04d.9781627081689"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Flenner, P. (2007). Carbon Steel Handbook, Electric Power Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Feng, C., Lin, T., Zhu, R., Zhang, J., Yang, H., Yi, S., He, J., Tu, M., and Wei, G. (2025). A Review of Wear-Resistant Coatings for Steel Substrates: Applications and Challenges. Metals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/met15111231"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M., and Vieira, M.F. (2021). Production of TiC-MMCs Reinforcements in Cast Ferrous Alloys Using In Situ Methods. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14175072"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M., Lacerda, P., Pinto, A.M., and Vieira, M.F. (2022). A study on a cast steel reinforced with WC\u2013metal matrix composite. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186199"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A.B., Ribeiro, L.M., Lacerda, P., and Vieira, M.F. (2021). Characterization of iron-matrix composites reinforced by in situ TiC and ex situ WC fabricated by casting. Metals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/met11060862"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matchemphys.2011.10.051","article-title":"The mechanism of thermal explosion (TE) synthesis of TiC\u2013TiB2 particulate locally reinforced steel matrix composites from an Al\u2013Ti\u2013B4C system via a TE-casting route","volume":"132","author":"Zou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1557\/jmr.2015.76","article-title":"In situ fabrication of TiC\u2013TiB2 precipitates in Mn-steel using thermal explosion (TE) casting","volume":"30","author":"Liang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2024.02.233","article-title":"Production of metal matrix composite reinforced by TiC by reactive infiltration of cast iron into Ti + C preforms","volume":"50","author":"Sobczak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acme.2019.05.004","article-title":"Local composite reinforcements of TiC\/FeMn type obtained in situ in steel castings","volume":"19","author":"Olejnik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6669","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00356413","article-title":"Effect of aluminium addition on the combustion reaction of titanium and carbon to form TiC","volume":"28","author":"Choi","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-018-4992-6","article-title":"The Effect of Fe Addition on Fragmentation Phenomena, Macrostructure, Microstructure, and Hardness of TiC-Fe Local Reinforcements Fabricated In Situ in Steel Casting","volume":"50","author":"Olejnik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. A"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2025.181260","article-title":"Local composite reinforcements of WC\/Fe-C type obtained in-situ via SHS synthesis in gray cast iron castings","volume":"1034","author":"Olejnik","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300627","DOI":"10.1002\/adem.202300627","article-title":"Cold crucible induction melting for the fabrication of Fe\u2013xTiC in situ metal Matrix composites: Alloying efficiency and microstructural analysis","volume":"25","author":"Perminov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2024.01.195","article-title":"Recent advances in wear-resistant steel matrix composites: A review of reinforcement particle selection and preparation processes","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, D., Wang, G., Dong, W., Hong, X., and Guo, C. (2025). Recent Advance on Metal Carbides Reinforced Laser Cladding Coatings. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30081820"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2024). Steel Castings for Pressure Purposes (Standard No. ISO 4991)."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2018). Metallic Materials\u2014Vickers Hardness Test\u2014Part 1: Test Method (Standard No. ISO 6507-1)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2008). Fine Ceramics (Advanced Ceramics, Advanced Technical Ceramics)\u2014Determination of the Abrasion Resistance of Coatings by a Micro-Scale Abrasion Test (Standard No. ISO 26424:2008)."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.782.527","article-title":"Effect of compaction Pressure applied to TiC reactants on the Microstructure and Properties of Composite Zones Produced in situ in steel castings","volume":"782","author":"Olejnik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.2478\/amm-2013-0019","article-title":"Composite zones produced in iron castings by in-situ synthesis of TiC carbides","volume":"58","author":"Olejnik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Metall. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmhm.2008.09.009","article-title":"Study of formation behavior of TiC ceramic obtained by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis from Al\u2013Ti\u2013C elemental powders","volume":"27","author":"Song","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, P., Li, X., and Yi, H. (2020). The \u03ba-carbides in low-density Fe-Mn-Al-C steels: A review on their structure, precipitation and deformation mechanism. Metals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/met10081021"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vacuum.2020.109662","article-title":"Aging hardening and precipitation behavior of Fe-31.6Mn-8.8Al-1.38C austenitic cast steel","volume":"181","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vacuum"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burja, J., \u0160etina Bati\u010d, B., and Bala\u0161ko, T. (2021). Kappa carbide precipitation in duplex Fe-Al-Mn-Ni-C low-density steel. Crystals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst11101261"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1007\/s11663-017-0942-8","article-title":"TiC-Fe-Based Composite Coating Prepared by Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis","volume":"48","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. B"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wear.2010.03.023","article-title":"A reliability model for friction and wear experimental data","volume":"269","author":"Ramalho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wear"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1721448","article-title":"Contact and Rubbing of Flat Surfaces","volume":"24","author":"Archard","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."}],"container-title":["Metals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4701\/16\/1\/19\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,30]],"date-time":"2025-12-30T05:25:08Z","timestamp":1767072308000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4701\/16\/1\/19"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["met16010019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/met16010019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4701"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2075-4701"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]}}}