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In addition, late-stage HIV infection increases the risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) by a factor of 20 in latently infected people, and even patients with controlled HIV infection on antiretroviral therapy (ART) have a fourfold increased risk of developing TB. Conversely, Mtb infection exacerbates HIV pathogenesis and increases the rate of AIDS progression. In this review, we discuss this reciprocal amplification of HIV\/Mtb coinfection and how they influence each other\u2019s pathogenesis. Elucidating the infectious cofactors that impact on pathogenesis may open doors for the design of new potential therapeutic strategies to control disease progression, especially in contexts where vaccines or the sterile clearance of pathogens are not effectively available.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11040853","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T04:31:21Z","timestamp":1679891481000},"page":"853","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["HIV\/Mtb Co-Infection: From the Amplification of Disease Pathogenesis to an \u201cEmerging Syndemic\u201d"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7434-7208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Miguel","family":"Azevedo-Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9602-1516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Pires","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health, Cat\u00f3lica Medical School, Universidade Cat\u00f3lica Portuguesa, Estrada Oct\u00e1vio Pato, 2635-631 Rio de Mouro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Calado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3997-9618","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manoj","family":"Mandal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0222-4887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Quirina","family":"Santos-Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5934-0198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsa","family":"Anes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2023, January 15). Global Tuberculosis Report 2022 Factsheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/global-tuberculosis-report-2022-factsheet."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726984","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.726984","article-title":"Cathepsins and Their Endogenous Inhibitors in Host Defense During Mycobacterium tuberculosis and HIV Infection","volume":"12","author":"Anes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. 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