{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T08:24:07Z","timestamp":1773995047061,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]],"date-time":"2021-08-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628467200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Project UIDB\/00195\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Project UIDB\/00195\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/109901\/2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/109901\/2015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/132436\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/132436\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Complex wastewater matrices present a major environmental concern. Besides the biodegradable organics, they may contain a great variety of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and other xenobiotics. The electrochemically activated persulfate process, an efficient way to generate sulfate radicals, has been widely applied to the degradation of such complex effluents with very good results. This review presents the fundamentals of the electro-persulfate processes, highlighting the advantages and limitations, followed by an exhaustive evaluation on the application of this process for the treatment of complex industrial effluents. An overview of the main relevant experimental parameters\/details and their influence on the organic load removal is presented and discussed, having in mind the application of these technologies at an industrial scale. Finally, the future perspectives for the application of the electro-persulfate processes in the treatment of complex wastewater matrices is outlined.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26164821","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]],"date-time":"2021-08-09T21:41:46Z","timestamp":1628545306000},"page":"4821","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Electro-Persulfate Processes for the Treatment of Complex Wastewater Matrices: Present and Future"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9007-5342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annabel","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Jo\u00e3o","family":"Nunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ana Sofia","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Jos\u00e9","family":"Pacheco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Lurdes","family":"Cir\u00edaco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4545-5784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FibEnTech-UBI, Department of Chemistry, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.04.023","article-title":"Application of cell-based assays for toxicity characterization of complex wastewater matrices: Possible applications in wastewater recycle and reuse","volume":"142","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2014.11.016","article-title":"Decontamination of wastewaters containing synthetic organic dyes by electrochemical methods. An updated review","volume":"166\u2013167","author":"Brillas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2020.127083","article-title":"A review of the recent advances on the treatment of industrial wastewaters by Sulfate Radical-based Advanced Oxidation Processes (SR-AOPs)","volume":"406","author":"Giannakis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2017.11.059","article-title":"Activation of persulfate (PS) and peroxymonosulfate (PMS) and application for the degradation of emerging contaminants","volume":"334","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.110125","article-title":"Remediation of persistent organic pollutants in aqueous systems by electrochemical activation of persulfates: A review","volume":"260","author":"Zhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2018.06.071","article-title":"Electrochemical generation of persulfate and its performance on 4-bromophenol treatment","volume":"207","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.129057","article-title":"Iron-based persulfate activation process for environmental decontamination in water and soil","volume":"265","author":"Karim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2020.119366","article-title":"Insight into in-situ radical and non-radical oxidative degradation of organic compounds in complex real matrix during electrooxidation with boron doped diamond electrode: A case study of oil sands process water treatment","volume":"279","author":"Ganiyu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5875","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b00015","article-title":"Understanding electrochemically activated persulfate and its application to ciprofloxacin abatement","volume":"52","author":"Matzek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2016.02.055","article-title":"Activated persulfate for organic chemical degradation: A review","volume":"151","author":"Matzek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1791","article-title":"Energy consumption and efficiency improvement of electro-activated persulfate processes: Optimization by CCD for TOC Removal from leachate concentrate","volume":"38","author":"Guvenc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sigma J. Eng. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.serj.2017.06.001","article-title":"Integration of coagulation and electro-activated HSO5\u2212to treat pulp and paper wastewater","volume":"27","author":"Jaafarzadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustain. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19350","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-7139-6","article-title":"Optimizing COD removal from greywater by photoelectro-persulfate process using Box-Behnken Design: Assessment of effluent quality and electrical energy consumption","volume":"2","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1021\/es404535q","article-title":"Electrolytic manipulation of persulfate reactivity by iron electrodes for trichloroethylene degradation in groundwater","volume":"48","author":"Yuan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2020.115","article-title":"Modeling and optimizing electro-persulfate processes using Fe and Al electrodes for paper industry wastewater treatment","volume":"81","author":"Varank","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145522","article-title":"Different activation methods in sulfate radical-based oxidation for organic pollutants degradation: Catalytic mechanism and toxicity assessment of degradation intermediates","volume":"772","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10330","DOI":"10.1021\/es502056d","article-title":"In situ chemical oxidation of contaminated groundwater by persulfate: Decomposition by Fe(III)- and Mn(IV)-containing oxides and aquifer materials","volume":"48","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Oh, W.D. (2016). Activation of Peroxymonosulfate by Heterogeneous Catalysts for the Removal of Organic Pollutants in Water. [Ph.D. Thesis, Nanyang Technological University]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.04.032","article-title":"Degradation of 2,4-dinitrotoluene by persulfate activated with zero-valent iron","volume":"408","author":"Oh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2018.10.007","article-title":"Landfill leachate treatment by sequential combination of activated persulfate and Fenton oxidation","volume":"81","author":"Silveira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2015.06.061","article-title":"Sono-activated persulfate oxidation of bisphenol A: Kinetics, pathways and the controversial role of temperature","volume":"280","author":"Darsinou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2019.04.020","article-title":"Mineralization of high saline petrochemical wastewater using Sonoelectro-activated persulfate: Degradation mechanisms and reaction kinetics","volume":"147","author":"Yousefi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2019.115928","article-title":"Treatment of landfill leachate nanofiltration concentrate after ultrafiltration by electrochemically assisted heat activation of peroxydisulfate","volume":"231","author":"Xue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2020.117570","article-title":"Treatment of dyeing wastewater by combined sulfate radical based electrochemical advanced oxidation and electrocoagulation processes","volume":"254","author":"Chanikya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2014.05.033","article-title":"Mineralization of dinitrotoluenes in industrial wastewater by electro-activated persulfate oxidation","volume":"252","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2019.05.064","article-title":"Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes coupled with peroxymonosulfate for the treatment of real washing machine effluent: A comparative study","volume":"847","author":"Ghanbari","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.126499","article-title":"Persulfate enhanced electrochemical oxidation of highly toxic cyanide-containing organic wastewater using boron-doped diamond anode","volume":"252","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.01.193","article-title":"Colour and COD removal from mature landfill leachate using electro-persulphate oxidation process","volume":"31","author":"Onn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s41742-020-00269-y","article-title":"Concentrated leachate treatment by electro-Fenton and electro-persulfate processes using Central Composite Design","volume":"14","author":"Varank","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2707","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-020-02651-x","article-title":"Electro-activated peroxymonosulfate and peroxydisulfate oxidation of leachate nanofiltration concentrate: Multiple-response optimization","volume":"17","author":"Varank","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1767","article-title":"Box-Behnken Design optimization of electro-Fenton\/-persulfate processes following the acidification for TSS removal from biodiesel wastewater","volume":"38","author":"Guvenc","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sigma J. Eng. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-020-04962-8","article-title":"Electro-activated persulfate oxidation of biodiesel wastewater following acidification phase: Optimization of process parameters using Box\u2013Behnken Design","volume":"232","author":"Guvenc","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.02.031","article-title":"Electro persulphate oxidation for polishing of biologically treated palm oil mill effluent (POME)","volume":"193","author":"Bashir","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200115","DOI":"10.4491\/eer.2020.115","article-title":"Application of a multiple criteria analysis for the selection of appropriate radical based processes in treatment of car wash wastewater","volume":"26","author":"Durna","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2014.03.114","article-title":"Removal of COD from landfill leachate by an electro\/Fe2+\/peroxydisulfate process","volume":"250","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2018.07.101","article-title":"Electrochemical\/peroxydisulfate\/Fe3+ treatment of landfill leachate nanofiltration concentrate after ultrafiltration","volume":"353","author":"Cui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popat, A., Nidheesh, P.V., Singh, T.A., and Kumar, M.S. (2019). Mixed industrial wastewater treatment by combined electrochemical advanced oxidation and biological processes. Chemosphere, 237.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.124419"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Application of the central composite design to mineralization of olive mill wastewater by the electro\/FeII\/persulfate oxidation method","volume":"2","author":"Yabalak","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125438","article-title":"Electrochemical treatment of organic pollutants in landfill leachate using a three-dimensional electrode system","volume":"243","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.10.168","article-title":"Pretreatment of landfill leachate in near-neutral pH condition by persulfate activated Fe-C micro-electrolysis system","volume":"216","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2019.24682","article-title":"Treatment of a saline petrochemical wastewater containing recalcitrant organics using electro-Fenton process: Persulfate and ultrasonic intensification","volume":"169","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9987","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-019-04159-0","article-title":"Sono-electro-chemical treatment of Reactive Black 5 dye and real textile effluent using MnSO4\/Na2S2O8 electrolytes","volume":"44","author":"Johin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluating the efficiency of advanced oxidation processes for textile wastewater treatment: Electro-kinetic, sonochemical and persulfate","volume":"40","author":"Jorfi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.05.026","article-title":"Electro-oxidation of organic pollutants by reactive electrochemical membranes","volume":"208","author":"Trellu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.8b00611","article-title":"The prospect of electrochemical technologies advancing worldwide water treatment","volume":"52","author":"Chaplin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chuah, C.Y., Lee, J., and Bae, T.-H. (2020). Graphene-based membranes for H2 separation: Recent progress and future perspective. Membranes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes10110336"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., and Wang, S. (2021). Toxicity changes of wastewater during various advanced oxidation processes treatment: An overview. J. Clean Prod., 315.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.128202"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/16\/4821\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:43:08Z","timestamp":1760164988000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/16\/4821"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules26164821"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules26164821","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,9]]}}}