{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T19:07:39Z","timestamp":1774379259195,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]],"date-time":"2022-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In African countries, cancer not only is a growing problem, but also a challenge because available funding and resources are limited. Therefore, African medicinal plants play a significant role in folk medicine and some of them are traditionally used for the treatment of cancer. The high mortality rate and adverse effects associated with cancer treatments have encouraged the search for novel plant-based drugs, thus, some African plants have been studied in recent years as a source of molecules with proven cytotoxicity. This review aims to discuss the cytotoxic activity, in vitro, of African plant crude extracts against cancer cell lines. For the period covered by this review (2017\u20132021) twenty-three articles were found and analyzed, which included a total of 105 plants, where the main cell lines used were those of breast cancer (MCF-7 and MDA-MBA-231) and colorectal cancer (HCT-116 and Caco-2), which are among the most prevalent cancers in Africa. In these studies, the plant crude extracts were obtained using different solvents, such as ethanol, methanol, or water, with variable results and IC50 values ranging from &lt;20 \u00b5g\/mL to &gt;200 \u00b5g\/mL. Water is the preferred solvent for most healers in African countries, however, in some studies, the aqueous extracts were the least potent. Apoptosis and the induction of cell cycle arrest may explain the cytotoxic activity seen in many of the plant extracts studied. Considering that the criteria of cytotoxicity activity for the crude extracts, as established by the American National Cancer Institute (NCI), is an IC50 &lt; 30 \u03bcg\/mL, we conclude that many extracts from the African flora could be a promising source of cytotoxic agents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27154989","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,8]],"date-time":"2022-08-08T22:33:11Z","timestamp":1659997991000},"page":"4989","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":87,"title":["In Vitro Cytotoxic Activity of African Plants: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Isabel","family":"Canga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESS\u2013P. Porto), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Chemistry Section, CIETUS, IBSAL, Pharmacy Faculty, University of Salamanca (USAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Vita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Higher Polytechnic School Kwanza Norte, Kimpa Vita University, Uige 77, Angola"}]},{"given":"Ana Isabel","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESS\u2013P. Porto), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Centre in Health and Environment (CISA), School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESS\u2013P. Porto), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1638-4689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda \u00c1ngeles","family":"Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Chemistry Section, CIETUS, IBSAL, Pharmacy Faculty, University of Salamanca (USAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}]},{"given":"Cl\u00e1udia","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESS\u2013P. Porto), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Centre in Health and Environment (CISA), School of Health, Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESS\u2013P. Porto), 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4459","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-020-03536-5","article-title":"The multifaceted role of reactive oxygen species in tumorigenesis","volume":"77","author":"Kirtonia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci. CMLS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00343","article-title":"Potential of Central, Eastern and Western Africa Medicinal Plants for Cancer Therapy: Spotlight on Resistant Cells and Molecular Targets","volume":"8","author":"Mbaveng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21708","article-title":"Cancer statistics","volume":"72","author":"Siegel","year":"2022","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21660","article-title":"Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2013.07.006","article-title":"Evading apoptosis in cancer","volume":"23","author":"Fernald","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"4729","article-title":"Promising Targets in Anti-cancer Drug Development: Recent Updates","volume":"24","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-018-0005-8","article-title":"Revisiting the role of ABC transporters in multidrug-resistant cancer","volume":"18","author":"Robey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8921","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.13475","article-title":"The role of p53 in cancer drug resistance and targeted chemotherapy","volume":"8","author":"Hientz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2017.08.002","article-title":"African medicinal plants and their derivatives: Current efforts towards potential anti-cancer drugs","volume":"103","author":"Mbele","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839835","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.839835","article-title":"Mapping Cancer in Africa: A Comprehensive and Comparable Characterization of 34 Cancer Types Using Estimates From GLOBOCAN 2020","volume":"10","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721402","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/721402","article-title":"Evaluating medicinal plants for anticancer activity","volume":"2014","author":"Solowey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2019.e01666","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and cell cycle analysis of Asparagus laricinus Burch. and Senecio asperulus DC. on breast and prostate cancer cell lines","volume":"5","author":"Mfengwana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547392","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.547392","article-title":"Apoptosis in Cancer Cells Is Induced by Alternative Splicing of hnRNPA2\/B1 Through Splicing of Bcl-x, a Mechanism that Can Be Stimulated by an Extract of the South African Medicinal Plant, Cotyledon orbiculata","volume":"10","author":"Makhafola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2196","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.23333","article-title":"In vitro antimetastatic activity of Momordica balsamina crude acetone extract in HT-29 human colon cancer cells","volume":"36","author":"Serala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zonyane, S., Fawole, O.A., la Grange, C., Stander, M.A., Opara, U.L., and Makunga, N.P. (2020). The Implication of Chemotypic Variation on the Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Cancer Activities of Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R.Br. (Fabaceae) from Different Geographic Locations. Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9020152"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12924","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69722-4","article-title":"Anticancer properties of Tulbaghia violacea regulate the expression of p53-dependent mechanisms in cancer cell lines","volume":"10","author":"Motadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Izuegbuna, O., Otunola, G., and Bradley, G. (2019). Chemical composition, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and cytotoxic activities of Opuntia stricta cladodes. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0209682"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2018.e00810","article-title":"In vitro \u03b1-amylase, \u03b1-glucosidase, lipase inhibitory and cytotoxic activities of tuber extracts of Kedrostis africana (L.)","volume":"4","author":"Unuofin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soyingbe, O.S., Mongalo, N.I., and Makhafola, T.J. (2018). In vitro antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of leaf extracts of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb, Warburgia salutaris (Bertol. F.) Chiov and Curtisia dentata (Burm. F.) CA Sm-medicinal plants used in South Africa. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-018-2378-3"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.113632","article-title":"Cytotoxic phytochemicals from the crude extract of Tetrapleura tetraptera fruits towards multi-factorial drug resistant cancer cells","volume":"267","author":"Mbaveng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2019.01.031","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of the crude extract and constituents of the bark of Fagara tessmannii towards multi-factorial drug resistant cancer cells","volume":"235","author":"Mbaveng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2017.07.002","article-title":"Biological activities of plant extracts from Ficus elastica and Selaginella vogelli: An antimalarial, antitrypanosomal and cytotoxity evaluation","volume":"25","author":"Nguemfo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mfotie Njoya, E., Munvera, A.M., Mkounga, P., Nkengfack, A.E., and McGaw, L.J. (2017). Phytochemical analysis with free radical scavenging, nitric oxide inhibition and antiproliferative activity of Sarcocephalus pobeguinii extracts. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1712-5"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"5","article-title":"Cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of different extracts of Moringa oleifera Lam on lymphoid and monocytoid cells","volume":"18","author":"Minutolo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2018.04.036","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of 18 Cameroonian medicinal plants against drug sensitive and multi-factorial drug resistant cancer cells","volume":"222","author":"Mbaveng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mycmed.2016.11.002","article-title":"Anticandidal, antibacterial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of Calendula arvensis flowers","volume":"2","author":"Abudunia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mycol. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.21010\/ajtcam.v14i2.37","article-title":"Induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by Ormenis eriolepis a Morrocan endemic plant in various human cancer cell lines","volume":"14","author":"Belayachi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2020.113359","article-title":"In vitro screening of plant extracts traditionally used as cancer remedies in Ghana\u201315-Hydroxyangustilobine A as the active principle in Alstonia boonei leaves","volume":"265","author":"Spiegler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tesfaye, S., Braun, H., Asres, K., Engidawork, E., Belete, A., Muhammad, I., Schulze, C., Schultze, N., Guenther, S., and Bednarski, P.J. (2021). Ethiopian Medicinal Plants Traditionally Used for the Treatment of Cancer; Part 3: Selective Cytotoxic Activity of 22 Plants against Human Cancer Cell Lines. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26123658"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahomoodally, M.F., Jugreet, S., Sinan, K.I., Zengin, G., Ak, G., Ceylan, R., Jek\u0151, J., Czi\u00e1ky, Z., Angelini, P., and Angeles Flores, G. (2021). Pharmacological Potential and Chemical Characterization of Bridelia ferruginea Benth.-A Native Tropical African Medicinal Plant. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10020223"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, A.G., Hussein, U.K., Ahmed, A.E., Kim, K.M., Mahmoud, H.M., Hammouda, O., Jang, K.Y., and Bishayee, A. (2020). Mustard Seed (Brassica nigra) Extract Exhibits Antiproliferative Effect against Human Lung Cancer Cells through Differential Regulation of Apoptosis, Cell Cycle, Migration, and Invasion. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25092069"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"170","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and Preliminary Analysis of the Pro-apoptotic and Cell Cycle Arrest Effects of Lantana ukambensis Against Colorectal Cancer Cells","volume":"11","author":"Sawadogo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Biol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1437433","article-title":"Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk. (Boraginaceae) extracts: Chemical constituents, antioxidant activity and cytotoxic effect in human cancer cell lines","volume":"33","author":"Mencherini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2018.01.004","article-title":"Cytotoxic activity of medicinal plants of the Kakamega County (Kenya) against drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cells","volume":"215","author":"Kimwele","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604214","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.604214","article-title":"Cancer in Africa: Is It a Genetic or Environmental Health Problem?","volume":"10","author":"Bahnassy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"GLOBOCON (2021, July 25). Southern Africa-Global Cancer Observatory. Available online: https:\/\/gco.iarc.fr\/."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021, June 25). Regional Office for Africa. Cancer. Available online: https:\/\/www.afro.who.int\/health-topics\/cancer."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Boik, J. (2001). Natural Compounds in Cancer Therapy, Oregon Medical Press."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Hostettmann, K. (1990). Assays related to cancer drug discovery. Methods in Plant Biochemistry: Assays for Bioactivity, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2014.08.012","article-title":"Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of the crude extracts of Dietes bicolor leaves, flowers and rhizomes","volume":"95","author":"Ayoub","year":"2014","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1177\/2156587217696927","article-title":"Effective Medicinal Plant in Cancer Treatment, Part 2: Review Study","volume":"22","author":"Kooti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"756482","article-title":"Antiproliferative and apoptosis induction potential of the methanolic leaf extract of Holarrhena floribunda (G. Don)","volume":"2015","author":"Badmus","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"664","article-title":"Apoptosis activity of Persea declinata (Bl.) kosterm bark methanolic crude extract. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology","volume":"8","author":"Narrima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Health Biomed. Bioeng. Pharm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010428317694318","DOI":"10.1177\/1010428317694318","article-title":"Splicing factor hnRNPA2B1 contributes to tumorigenic potential of breast cancer cells through STAT3 and ERK1\/2 signaling pathway","volume":"39","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tumor Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.05.009","article-title":"Perfluorooctanoic acid stimulates ovarian cancer cell migration, invasion via ERK\/NF-\u03baB\/MMP-2\/-9 pathway","volume":"294","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.06.004","article-title":"Perfluorooctanoic acid stimulates breast cancer cells invasion and up-regulates matrix metalloproteinase-2\/-9 expression mediated by activating NF-\u03baB","volume":"229","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2010.01.010","article-title":"Nuclear-targeted inhibition of NF-kappaB on MMP-9 production by N-2-(4-bromophenyl) ethyl caffeamide in human monocytic cells","volume":"184","author":"Chou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naidoo, D.B., Chuturgoon, A.A., Phulukdaree, A., Guruprasad, K.P., Satyamoorthy, K., and Sewram, V. (2017). Centella asiatica modulates cancer cachexia associated inflammatory cytokines and cell death in leukaemic THP-1 cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC\u2019s). BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1865-2"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, D., Yoon, S.Y., Park, S.J., and Park, Y.J. (2021). The Anticancer Effect of Natural Plant Alkaloid Isoquinolines. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22041653"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/15\/4989\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:04:50Z","timestamp":1760141090000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/15\/4989"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules27154989"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27154989","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,5]]}}}