{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T17:15:12Z","timestamp":1767892512126,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668038400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["PTDC\/CTM-CTM\/4044\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/CTM-CTM\/4044\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031132"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031132"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Along with piezoelectric nanogenerators, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) collecting energy from mechanical vibrations proved to be simple, low-cost, and efficient sources of electricity for various applications. In view of possible biomedical applications, the search for TENGs made of biomolecular and biocompatible materials is demanding. Diphenylalanine (FF) microstructures are promising for these applications due to their unique characteristics and ability to form various morphologies (microribbons, spherical vesicles, fibrils, micro- and nanotubes, nanorods, etc.). In this work, we developed a contact-separate mode TENG based on arrays of oriented FF microbelts deposited by dip-coating technique and studied their performance under various temperature treatments. We show that these TENGs outperform piezoelectric nanogenerators based on FF microbelts in terms of short-circuit current (ISC), open-circuit voltage (VOC), and output power. It was found that bound water captured in FF nanochannels mainly affects VOC, whereas mobile water increases ISC. We also found that the cyclization of FF molecules increases the performance of TENG likely due to an increase in surface energy and surface flattening.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12223955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T19:18:29Z","timestamp":1668107909000},"page":"3955","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Triboelectric Generator Based on Oriented Self-Assembled Peptide Microbelts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Vladislav","family":"Slabov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6820-2483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Vidal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering & TEMA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3895-4785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavel","family":"Zelenovskii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry & CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3347-8628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svitlana","family":"Kopyl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4299-1263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco P.","family":"Soares dos Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering & TEMA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3432-7610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrei","family":"Kholkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippini, D. (2012). Autonomous Sensor Networks: Collective Sensing Strategies for Analytical Purposes, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-34648-4"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2013.08.002","article-title":"Instrumented hip implants: Electric supply systems","volume":"46","author":"Ferreira","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2020.2967842","article-title":"Dual Vibration and Magnetic Energy Harvesting With Bidomain LiNbO3-Based Composite","volume":"67","author":"Vidal","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, Y.K. (2011). A Modelling Framework for Energy Harvesting Aware Wireless Sensor Networks. Sustainable Energy Harvesting Technologies-Past, Present and Future, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/945"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kymissis, J., Kendall, C., Paradiso, J., and Gershenfeld, N. (1998, January 19\u201320). Parasitic power harvesting in shoes. Proceedings of the Digest of Papers. Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (Cat. No.98EX215), Pittsburgh, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14912","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5b03680","article-title":"Cloth-Based Power Shirt for Wearable Energy Harvesting and Clothes Ornamentation","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800081","DOI":"10.1002\/adsu.201800081","article-title":"Soft Tubular Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Biomechanical Energy Harvesting","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Sustain. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9496","DOI":"10.1039\/D0TA00227E","article-title":"Piezofibers to smart textiles: A review on recent advances and future outlook for wearable technology","volume":"8","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2013.03.001","article-title":"Triboelectric nanogenerator built inside shoe insole for harvesting walking energy","volume":"2","author":"Hou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2018.06.004","article-title":"Graphene-based materials and structures for energy harvesting with fluids\u2013A review","volume":"21","author":"Tarelho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18579","DOI":"10.1038\/srep18579","article-title":"Magnetic levitation-based electromagnetic energy harvesting: A semi-analytical non-linear model for energy transduction","volume":"6","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.114191","article-title":"Electromagnetic energy harvesting using magnetic levitation architectures: A review","volume":"260","author":"Carneiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802230","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201802230","article-title":"Integrated Triboelectric Nanogenerators in the Era of the Internet of Things","volume":"6","author":"Ahmed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/s41570-019-0115-1","article-title":"Long-standing and unresolved issues in triboelectric charging","volume":"3","author":"Lacks","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2012.01.004","article-title":"Flexible triboelectric generator","volume":"1","author":"Fan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702649","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201702649","article-title":"Scavenging Wind Energy by Triboelectric Nanogenerators","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2018.12.059","article-title":"Interaction of the human body with triboelectric nanogenerators","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1501478","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1501478","article-title":"Biodegradable triboelectric nanogenerator as a life-time designed implantable power source","volume":"2","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2019.111059","article-title":"Rice paper-based biodegradable triboelectric nanogenerator","volume":"216","author":"Chi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slabov, V., Kopyl, S., Soares dos Santos, M.P., and Kholkin, A.L. (2020). Natural and Eco-Friendly Materials for Triboelectric Energy Harvesting. Nano-Micro Lett., 12.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-020-0373-y"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1021\/nn901327v","article-title":"Strong Piezoelectricity in Bioinspired Peptide Nanotubes","volume":"4","author":"Kholkin","year":"2010","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpcs.2016.02.002","article-title":"Piezoelectric properties of diphenylalanine microtubes prepared from the solution","volume":"93","author":"Vasilev","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Solids"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3699202","article-title":"Polarization switching and patterning in self-assembled peptide tubular structures","volume":"111","author":"Bdikin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700052","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201700052","article-title":"Strong Electro-Optic Effect and Spontaneous Domain Formation in Self-Assembled Peptide Structures","volume":"4","author":"Gilboa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3754","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200800364","article-title":"High-Temperature Self-Assembly of Peptides into Vertically Well-Aligned Nanowires by Aniline Vapor","volume":"20","author":"Ryu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8138","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b03118","article-title":"Diphenylalanine Peptide Nanotube Energy Harvesters","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10543","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b19668","article-title":"Diphenylalanine-Based Microribbons for Piezoelectric Applications via Inkjet Printing","volume":"10","author":"Safaryan","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4284","DOI":"10.1021\/cm800015p","article-title":"Solid-Phase Growth of Nanostructures from Amorphous Peptide Thin Film: Effect of Water Activity and Temperature","volume":"20","author":"Ryu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1472","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.cgd.5b01604","article-title":"Evaporation-Driven Crystallization of Diphenylalanine Microtubes for Microelectronic Applications","volume":"16","author":"Nuraeva","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cryst. Growth Des."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5219","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6219","article-title":"Ostwald\u2019s rule of stages governs structural transitions and morphology of dipeptide supramolecular polymers","volume":"5","author":"Levin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13566","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13566","article-title":"Self-assembly of diphenylalanine peptide with controlled polarization for power generation","volume":"7","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2018.06.061","article-title":"Piezoelectric diphenylalanine peptide for greatly improved flexible nanogenerators","volume":"51","author":"Jenkins","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1002\/nano.202000220","article-title":"Nanoconfined water governs polarization-related properties of self-assembled peptide nanotubes","volume":"2","author":"Salehli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Sel."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27485","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c03658","article-title":"Efficient Water Self-Diffusion in Diphenylalanine Peptide Nanotubes","volume":"12","author":"Zelenovskiy","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1480","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2019.2908396","article-title":"Low-Frequency Vibration Energy Harvesting With Bidomain LiNbO3 Single Crystals","volume":"66","author":"Vidal","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3713","DOI":"10.1021\/nn4007708","article-title":"Integrated Multilayered Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Harvesting Biomechanical Energy from Human Motions","volume":"7","author":"Bai","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2014.07.006","article-title":"Hybrid triboelectric nanogenerator for harvesting water wave energy and as a self-powered distress signal emitter","volume":"9","author":"Su","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2019.01.008","article-title":"Vertically aligned cyclo-phenylalanine peptide nanowire-based high-performance triboelectric energy generator","volume":"57","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"2332","article-title":"The structure of nanotubes formed by diphenylalanine, the core recognition motif of Alzheimer\u2019s \u03b2-amyloid polypeptide","volume":"22","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200901973","article-title":"Role of Water in Directing Diphenylalanine Assembly into Nanotubes and Nanowires","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceramint.2018.12.154","article-title":"A semi-empirical power-law model for the dip-coating of a substrate into a particle-containing, non-Newtonian, complex fluid system","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ceram. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142902","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4962652","article-title":"Pyroelectric effect and polarization instability in self-assembled diphenylalanine microtubes","volume":"109","author":"Esin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29681","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CP04337B","article-title":"On the origin of the great rigidity of self-assembled diphenylalanine nanotubes","volume":"18","author":"Zelenovskiy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00131-4","article-title":"Achieving ultrahigh triboelectric charge density for efficient energy harvesting","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5153","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-3765(20011203)7:23<5153::AID-CHEM5153>3.0.CO;2-N","article-title":"Nanotube Formation by Hydrophobic Dipeptides","volume":"7","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chem.-Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033583502003815","article-title":"What vibrations tell us about proteins","volume":"35","author":"Barth","year":"2002","journal-title":"Q. Rev. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1021\/nn404237f","article-title":"Expanding the solvent chemical space for self-assembly of dipeptide nanostructures","volume":"8","author":"Mason","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6644","DOI":"10.1021\/jp501503x","article-title":"Self-assembly of cyclo-diphenylalanine peptides in vacuum","volume":"118","author":"Jeon","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600576719014092","article-title":"Mercury 4.0: From visualization to analysis, design and prediction","volume":"53","author":"Macrae","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Cryst."}],"container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/12\/22\/3955\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:13:39Z","timestamp":1760145219000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-4991\/12\/22\/3955"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nano12223955"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nano12223955","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-4991"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-4991","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]]}}}