{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T13:42:41Z","timestamp":1775137361239,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PT National Funds","award":["UID\/50006\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50006\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nanomaterials"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The agrifood sector produces considerable waste, offering opportunities for sustainable innovation. In the coffee industry, spent coffee grounds (SCG) can be valorized to generate eco-friendly nanomaterials such as nano zerovalent iron (nZVI), widely applied in soil and water remediation. In this study, green nZVIs were synthesized using SCG hydromethanolic extracts and FeCl3, subsequently characterized, and assessed for cytotoxicity. High-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) was employed to identify hydroxycinnamic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline in the SCG extracts. Preliminary remediation assays were conducted with seven contaminants, with venlafaxine selected for detailed pH and kinetic studies. Characterization of nZVIs included SEM and EDS analyses, which revealed spherical nZVI particles (72\u201383 nm) composed of carbon (47%), oxygen (34%), and iron (16%). Dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements indicated the presence of smaller particles (15\u201323 nm). Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) confirmed a residual mass of about 20% at 1400 \u00b0C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed phenolic compound incorporation, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed an amorphous structure. The particles exhibited magnetic behavior and showed no cytotoxicity toward MRC-5 and U87 cell lines. Among the tested contaminants, venlafaxine displayed the highest removal efficiency in remediation tests. Compared with chemically synthesized nZVI, the green version exhibited enhanced stability, attributed to the presence of surface-bounded organic matter. Overall, this sustainable and cost-effective approach to produce nZVI from SCG provides an innovative method for waste valorization and environmental remediation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nano15231788","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T16:31:52Z","timestamp":1764261112000},"page":"1788","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Upcycling Coffee Waste into Sustainable Nano Zerovalent Iron for Environmental Contaminant Remediation: Characterization, Applicability and Cytotoxicity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Filipe","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s\/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0628-2753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Cl\u00e1udia","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, School of Health, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4420-6476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Isabel","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, School of Health, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 400, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3924-776X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Delerue-Matos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Grosso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\/LAQV, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Doutor Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franca, A.S., and Oliveira, L.S. 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