{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:22:06Z","timestamp":1760059326594,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749513600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"national funds through the Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia, I.P. (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology)","award":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"]}]},{"name":"national funds from Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal","award":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"]}]},{"name":"National Funds through the FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05064\/2020","UIDP\/04035\/2020","UIDB\/05183"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nitrogen"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monoculture systems depend on high nitrogen (N) fertilisation. Incorporating legumes into forage crops offers a sustainable alternative with agronomic and economic benefits. This study assesses the impact of legumes in fodder systems, evaluating yield, N use efficiency (NUE), and profitability while identifying the best cropping strategy under semi-arid conditions. The experiment, conducted at Herdade da Comenda, Elvas, Portugal, used a split\u2013split-plot randomised block design to analyse N doses, forage species, and irrigation. Economic metrics, including costs, net revenue, return on investment, and risk analysis, were also assessed. Moderate N doses (120 kg ha\u22121) resulted in significantly higher NUE (15.67 kg kg\u22121 N) than higher doses (200 kg ha\u22121), which yield only 1.40 kg kg\u22121 N (p &lt; 0.05), particularly in mixed fodder crops. Irrigation improved N absorption, crop nutrition, and yield, leading to higher profitability despite increased initial costs. Agronomically, irrigation and N doses influenced yield and nutrient uptake, while no significant differences were observed between different forage crops in terms of yield or NUE. Economically, the irrigated mixed crop showed the highest return on investment (ROI = 247.37 EUR ha\u22121), whereas ryegrass presented lower financial risk (BE = 2213.24 kg ha\u22121) due to lower establishment costs. Yield was the strongest predictor of net profit (R2 = 0.89). Looking ahead, optimising N management, irrigation strategies, and mixed grass\u2013legume crops will be crucial to maximising economic returns while minimising environmental impacts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nitrogen6020044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T12:53:16Z","timestamp":1749559996000},"page":"44","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Optimising Legume Integration, Nitrogen Fertilisation, and Irrigation in Semi-Arid Forage Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0640-7835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Sciences Department, NOVA School of Science & Technology, Campus of Caparica, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"VALORIZA\u2014Research Center for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, 7300-110 Portalegre, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6233-2970","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Sciences Department, NOVA School of Science & Technology, Campus of Caparica, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"GeoBioTec Research Center, NOVA School of Science & Technology, Campus of Caparica, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Fernando Cebola","family":"Lid\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Sciences Department, NOVA School of Science & Technology, Campus of Caparica, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"GeoBioTec Research Center, NOVA School of Science & Technology, Campus of Caparica, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3856-5157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benvindo","family":"Ma\u00e7\u00e3s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INIAV\u2014National Institute of Agricultural and Veterinary Research, I.P., 7351-901 Elvas, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Faugno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples, Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy"}]},{"given":"Maura","family":"Sannino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples, Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5178-8158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development and CHANGE\u2014Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of \u00c9vora, P\u00f3lo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7006-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4865-0681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"D\u2019Antonio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural, Forestry, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Basilicata, 85100 Potenza, Italy"}]},{"given":"Costanza","family":"Fiorentino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural, Forestry, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Basilicata, 85100 Potenza, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8429-9614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Cellini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agenzia Lucana di Sviluppo e di Innovazione in Agricoltura (ALSIA), Centro Ricerche Metapontum Agrobios, 75012 Metaponto di Bernalda, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1951-889X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VALORIZA\u2014Research Center for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, 7300-110 Portalegre, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6947-4368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds Alcino","family":"Concei\u00e7\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VALORIZA\u2014Research Center for Endogenous Resource Valorization, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, 7300-110 Portalegre, Portugal"},{"name":"InovTechAgro\u2014National Skills Center for Technological Innovation in the Agroforestry Sector, 7300-110 Portalegre, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Council of the European Union (2025, March 01). 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