{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T21:19:42Z","timestamp":1776287982003,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,30]],"date-time":"2023-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2020-117009RB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2020-117009RB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chlorella is a marine microalga rich in proteins and containing all the essential amino acids. Chlorella also contains fiber and other polysaccharides, as well as polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. The proportion of the different macronutrients in Chlorella can be modulated by altering the conditions in which it is cultured. The bioactivities of these macronutrients make Chlorella a good candidate food to include in regular diets or as the basis of dietary supplements in exercise-related nutrition both for recreational exercisers and professional athletes. This paper reviews current knowledge of the effects of the macronutrients in Chlorella on physical exercise, specifically their impact on performance and recovery. In general, consuming Chlorella improves both anaerobic and aerobic exercise performance as well as physical stamina and reduces fatigue. These effects seem to be related to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic activity of all its macronutrients, while each component of Chlorella contributes its bioactivity via a specific action. Chlorella is an excellent dietary source of high-quality protein in the context of physical exercise, as dietary proteins increase satiety, activation of the anabolic mTOR (mammalian Target of Rapamycin) pathway in skeletal muscle, and the thermic effects of meals. Chlorella proteins also increase intramuscular free amino acid levels and enhance the ability of the muscles to utilize them during exercise. Fiber from Chlorella increases the diversity of the gut microbiota, which helps control body weight and maintain intestinal barrier integrity, and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which improve physical performance. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) from Chlorella contribute to endothelial protection and modulate the fluidity and rigidity of cell membranes, which may improve performance. Ultimately, in contrast to several other nutritional sources, the use of Chlorella to provide high-quality protein, dietary fiber, and bioactive fatty acids may also significantly contribute to a sustainable world through the fixation of carbon dioxide and a reduction of the amount of land used to produce animal feed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092168","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,1]],"date-time":"2023-05-01T12:10:03Z","timestamp":1682943003000},"page":"2168","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Bioactivity of Macronutrients from Chlorella in Physical Exercise"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Karenia","family":"Lorenzo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"given":"Garoa","family":"Santocildes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6314-6523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joan Ramon","family":"Torrella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4808-8374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Magalh\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metabolism and Exercise (LaMetEx), Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4969-1522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teresa","family":"Pag\u00e8s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4942-2346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gin\u00e9s","family":"Viscor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"given":"Josep Llu\u00eds","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9293-4454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Ramos-Romero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiology Section, Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fshw.2019.03.001","article-title":"Microalgae: A potential alternative to health supplementation for humans","volume":"8","author":"Koyande","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Hum. Wellness"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Jesus Raposo, M.F., Miranda Bernardo de Morais, A.M., and Santos Costa de Morais, R.M. (2016). Emergent sources of prebiotics: Seaweeds and microalgae. Mar. Drugs, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/md14020027"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Rastogi, R.P., Madamwar, D., and Pandey, A. (2017). Algal Green Chemistry: Recent Progress in Biotechnology, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramos-Romero, S., Torrella, J.R., Pages, T., Viscor, G., and Torres, J.L. (2021). Edible Microalgae and Their Bioactive Compounds in the Prevention and Treatment of Metabolic Alterations. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020563"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"115","article-title":"Identification of Chlorella spp. isolates using ribosomal DNA sequences","volume":"42","author":"Wu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richmond, A., and Hu, Q. (2013). Handbook of Microalgal Culture: Applied Phycology and Biotechnology, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118567166"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bito, T., Okumura, E., Fujishima, M., and Watanabe, F. (2020). Potential of Chlorella as a dietary supplement to promote human health. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092524"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2719","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-016-0812-9","article-title":"Screening of microalgae for primary metabolites including \u03b2-glucans and the influence of nitrate starvation and irradiance on \u03b2-glucan production","volume":"28","author":"Schulze","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carres.2012.02.007","article-title":"A new arabinomannan from the cell wall of the chlorococcal algae Chlorella vulgaris","volume":"352","author":"Pieper","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.9b06282","article-title":"Physicochemical characterization of a polysaccharide from green microalga Chlorella pyrenoidosa and its hypolipidemic activity via gut microbiota regulation in rats","volume":"68","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richmon, A. (2013). Handbook of Microalgal Culture, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118567166"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2020.01.020","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of algal natural products against metabolic syndrome: A review of recent developments","volume":"97","author":"Fernando","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-001-0012-7","article-title":"Identification of antihypertensive peptides from peptic digest of two microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis","volume":"3","author":"Suetsuna","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-6749(95)70016-1","article-title":"Allergy to green-algae (Chlorella) among children","volume":"96","author":"Tiberg","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.09.019","article-title":"Effect of Chlorella supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"37","author":"Fallah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira de Oliveira, A.P., and Arisseto Bragotto, A.P. (2022). Microalgae-based products: Food and public health. Future Foods, 6.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fufo.2022.100157"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2019.00481","article-title":"Microalgae a auperior source of folates: Quantification of folates in halophile microalgae by stable isotope dilution assay","volume":"7","author":"Woortman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3487","DOI":"10.3390\/md12063487","article-title":"Chlorella zofingiensis as an alternative microalgal producer of astaxanthin: Biology and industrial potential","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3mez-Zavaglia, A., Prieto Lage, M.A., Jim\u00e9nez-Lopez, C., Mejuto, J.C., and Simal-Gandara, J. (2019). The potential of seaweeds as a source of functional ingredients of prebiotic and antioxidant value. Antioxidants, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox8090406"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouviere, J., Fortunato, R.S., Dupuy, C., Werneck-de-Castro, J.P., Carvalho, D.P., and Louzada, R.A. (2021). Exercise-Stimulated ROS Sensitive Signaling Pathways in Skeletal Muscle. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10040537"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zunner, B.E.M., Wachsmuth, N.B., Eckstein, M.L., Scherl, L., Schierbauer, J.R., Haupt, S., Stumpf, C., Reusch, L., and Moser, O. (2022). Myokines and Resistance Training: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23073501"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2019.7949","article-title":"Redox Signaling in Widespread Health Benefits of Exercise","volume":"33","author":"Louzada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00164.2004","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise","volume":"98","author":"Petersen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00019.2013","article-title":"Exercise is the Real Polypill","volume":"28","author":"Garatachea","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilski, J., Pierzchalski, P., Szczepanik, M., Bonior, J., and Zoladz, J.A. (2022). Multifactorial Mechanism of Sarcopenia and Sarcopenic Obesity. Role of Physical Exercise, Microbiota and Myokines. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11010160"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12581","article-title":"Exercise as medicine\u2014Evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases","volume":"25","author":"Pedersen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sport."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atakan, M.M., Kosar, S.N., Guzel, Y., Tin, H.T., and Yan, X. (2021). The Role of Exercise, Diet, and Cytokines in Preventing Obesity and Improving Adipose Tissue. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051459"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1159\/000223730","article-title":"Exercise and Mental Health: Many Reasons to Move","volume":"59","author":"Deslandes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruegsegger, G.N., and Booth, F.W. (2018). Health Benefits of Exercise. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a029694"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1159\/000094303","article-title":"Oral administration of hot water extracts of Chlorella vulgaris increases physical stamina in mice","volume":"50","author":"An","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.3989","article-title":"Effects of hydrolyzed Chlorella vulgaris by malted barley on the immunomodulatory response in ICR mice and in Molt-4 cells","volume":"90","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2010.11.078","article-title":"Influence of Chlorella powder intake during swimming stress in mice","volume":"404","author":"Mizoguchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3164\/jcbn.14-58","article-title":"Chlorelladerived multicomponent supplementation increases aerobic endurance capacity in young individuals","volume":"55","author":"Umemoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R520","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00383.2016","article-title":"High-intensity intermittent exercise training with chlorella intake accelerates exercise performance and muscle glycolytic and oxidative capacity in rats","volume":"312","author":"Horii","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2019.01.008","article-title":"Effect of combination of chlorella intake and aerobic exercise training on glycemic control in type 2 diabetic rats","volume":"63\u201364","author":"Horii","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1007\/s11332-020-00656-0","article-title":"Effect of Chlorella vulgaris supplementation with eccentric exercise on serum interleukin 6 and insulin resistance in overweight men","volume":"16","author":"Samadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-007-9453-2","article-title":"Antioxidant effect of the marine algae Chlorella vulgaris against naphthalene-induced oxidative stress in the albino rats","volume":"303","author":"Vijayavel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2009.03.010","article-title":"Six-week supplementation with Chlorella has favorable impact on antioxidant status in Korean male smokers","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Chen, Y., Chen, Q., Yang, H., and Xie, X. (2018). Astaxanthin promotes Nrf2\/ARE signaling to alleviate renal fibronectin and collagen IV accumulation in diabetic rats. J. Diabetes Res., 2018.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/6730315"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5135","DOI":"10.1113\/JP270654","article-title":"Do antioxidant supplements interfere with skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training?","volume":"594","author":"Merry","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-8490.172660","article-title":"Inhibition of Pro-inflammatory Mediators and Cytokines by Chlorella Vulgaris Extracts","volume":"8","author":"Sibi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2007.08.014","article-title":"SIRT1 improves insulin sensitivity under insulin-resistant conditions by repressing PTP1B","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-009-0184-4","article-title":"The fructose-fed rat: A review on the mechanisms of fructose-induced insulin resistance and hypertension","volume":"332","author":"Tran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Moll. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00471.2010","article-title":"Assessment of flow-mediated dilation in humans: A methodological and physiological guideline","volume":"300","author":"Thijssen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3164\/jcbn.15-86","article-title":"Changes in arterial stiffness and nitric oxide production with Chlorelladerived multicomponent supplementation in middleaged and older individuals","volume":"57","author":"Otsuki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2013.03.006","article-title":"Phycocyanin prevents hypertension and low serum adiponectin level in a rat model of metabolic syndrome","volume":"33","author":"Ichimura","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.70252\/ZUEN4596","article-title":"Acute Effects of L-Arginine Supplementation on Oxygen Consumption Kinetics and Muscle Oxyhemoglobin and Deoxyhemoglobin during Treadmill Running in Male Adults","volume":"12","author":"Meirelles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3164\/jcbn.16-3","article-title":"Changes in salivary flow rate following Chlorella derived multicomponent supplementation","volume":"59","author":"Otsuki","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2006.11.002","article-title":"Micro-algae as a source of protein","volume":"25","author":"Becker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barkia, I., Saari, N., and Manning, S.R. (2019). Microalgae for high-value products towards human health and nutrition. Mar. Drugs, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/md17050304"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molino, A., Iovine, A., Casella, P., Mehariya, S., Chianese, S., Cerbone, A., Rimauro, J., and Musmarra, D. (2018). Microalgae Characterization for Consolidated and New Application in Human Food, Animal Feed and Nutraceuticals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112436"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40643-016-0094-8","article-title":"Concentration and characterization of microalgae proteins from Chlorella pyrenoidosa","volume":"3","author":"Waghmare","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioresour. Bioprocess."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2016.1274691","article-title":"Acute and Long-Term Impact of High-Protein Diets on Endocrine and Metabolic Function, Body Composition, and Exercise-Induced Adaptations","volume":"36","author":"Morales","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynch, H., Johnston, C., and Wharton, C. (2018). Plant-Based Diets: Considerations for Environmental Impact, Protein Quality, and Exercise Performance. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121841"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2012.10.029","article-title":"Characterization of structure-antioxidant activity relationship of peptides in free radical systems using QSAR models: Key sequence positions and their amino acid properties","volume":"318","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2012.06.001","article-title":"Biological activities and potential health benefits of bioactive peptides derived from marine organisms","volume":"51","author":"Ngo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2012.04.022","article-title":"Protective effect of a novel antioxidative peptide purified from a marine Chlorella ellipsoidea protein against free radical-induced oxidative stress","volume":"50","author":"Ko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2009.02.014","article-title":"Antioxidant properties of a new antioxidative peptide from algae protein waste hydrolysate in different oxidation systems","volume":"100","author":"Sheih","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-016-0974-5","article-title":"Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: Revisiting our understanding","volume":"29","author":"Wells","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-019-02748-9","article-title":"Dietary supplementation with arginine and glutamic acid alters the expression of amino acid transporters in skeletal muscle of growing pigs","volume":"51","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13053","article-title":"Leucine alone or in combination with glutamic acid, but not with arginine, increases biceps femoris muscle and alters muscle AA transport and concentrations in fattening pigs","volume":"103","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(94)00243-X","article-title":"Effect of Aspartate, Asparagine, and Carnitine Supplementation in the Diet on Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle During a Moderate Exercise","volume":"57","author":"Lancha","year":"1995","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1159\/000341937","article-title":"Arginine and Citrulline Supplementation in Sports and Exercise: Ergogenic Nutrients?","volume":"59","author":"Sureda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/10715762.2017.1301664","article-title":"L-arginine supplementation improves rats\u2019 antioxidant system and exercise performance","volume":"51","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Free Radic. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.080","article-title":"Isolation, structures and biological activities of polysaccharides from Chlorella: A review","volume":"163","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2016.05.086","article-title":"Antioxidant activities of polysaccharides obtained from Chlorella pyrenoidosa via different ethanol concentrations","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2007.04.018","article-title":"Preparation, identification and their antitumor activities in vitro of polysaccharides from Chlorella pyrenoidosa","volume":"105","author":"Sheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.046","article-title":"Effect of beta- and alpha-glucans on immune modulating factors expression in enterocyte-like Caco-2 and goblet-like LS 174T cells","volume":"153","author":"Damiano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynolds, A.N., Akerman, A.P., and Mann, J. (2020). Dietary fibre and whole grains in diabetes management: Systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003053"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1007\/s11746-016-2849-y","article-title":"Chemical Characterization of Six Microalgae with Potential Utility for Food Application","volume":"93","author":"Matos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, Z.W., Yu, E.Z., and Feng, Q. (2021). Soluble Dietary Fiber, One of the Most Important Nutrients for the Gut Microbiota. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26226802"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7828","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO01534E","article-title":"Depolymerized RG-I-enriched pectin from citrus segment membranes modulates gut microbiota, increases SCFA production, and promotes the growth of Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Faecalibaculum spp","volume":"10","author":"Mao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marttinen, M., Ala-Jaakkola, R., Laitila, A., and Lehtinen, M.J. (2020). Gut Microbiota, Probiotics and Physical Performance in Athletes and Physically Active Individuals. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12102936"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13248","article-title":"Review article: Dietary fibre-microbiota interactions","volume":"42","author":"Simpson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharm. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2020.0057","article-title":"Short chain fatty acids in human gut and metabolic health","volume":"11","author":"Blaak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van der Linde, C., Barone, M., Turroni, S., Brigidi, P., Keleszade, E., Swann, J.R., and Costabile, A. (2021). An In Vitro Pilot Fermentation Study on the Impact of Chlorella pyrenoidosa on Gut Microbiome Composition and Metabolites in Healthy and Coeliac Subjects. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26082330"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, K.L., Yuan, Q.X., Li, H., Li, T.T., Ma, H.Q., Gao, C.H., Zhang, S.Y., Liu, Y.H., and Zhao, L.Y. (2022). Chlorella pyrenoidosa Polysaccharides as a Prebiotic to Modulate Gut Microbiota: Physicochemical Properties and Fermentation Characteristics In Vitro. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11050725"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2938","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.10321","article-title":"Supplementation with Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella protothecoides, and Schizochytrium sp. increases propionate-producing bacteria in in vitro human gut fermentation","volume":"100","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015acieszka, S., and Klewicka, E. (2020). Influence of the Microalga Chlorella vulgaris on the Growth and Metabolic Activity of Lactobacillus spp. Bacteria. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9070959"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.M., Wei, L., Chiu, Y.S., Hsu, Y.J., Tsai, T.Y., Wang, M.F., and Huang, C.C. (2016). Lactobacillus plantarum TWK10 Supplementation Improves Exercise Performance and Increases Muscle Mass in Mice. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8040205"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jshs.2016.05.001","article-title":"Endurance exercise and gut microbiota: A review","volume":"6","author":"Mach","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishimoto, Y., Nomaguchi, T., Mori, Y., Ito, M., Nakamura, Y., Fujishima, M., Murakami, S., Yamada, T., and Fukuda, S. (2021). The Nutritional Efficacy of Chlorella Supplementation Depends on the Individual Gut Environment: A Randomised Control Study. Front. Nutr., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.648073"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2013.01.004","article-title":"Comparison of microalgal biomass profiles as novel functional ingredient for food products","volume":"2","author":"Batista","year":"2013","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1021\/jf5050603","article-title":"Microalgae lipid characterization","volume":"63","author":"Yao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8667","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-016-7818-8","article-title":"Lipids rich in \u03c9-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from microalgae","volume":"100","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2016.07.002","article-title":"Metabolism and functional effects of plant-derived omega-3 fatty acids in humans","volume":"64","author":"Baker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2010.06.076","article-title":"Microwave-assisted Nile red method for in vivo quantification of neutral lipids in microalgae","volume":"102","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-3010.2006.00571.x","article-title":"The health effects of dietary unsaturated fatty acids","volume":"31","author":"Lunn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gammone, M.A., Riccioni, G., Parrinello, G., and D\u2019Orazio, N. (2018). Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Benefits and Endpoints in Sport. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010046"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2015.02.005","article-title":"Exercise and oxidative stress: Potential effects of antioxidant dietary strategies in sports","volume":"31","author":"Pingitore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982794","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/982794","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species in skeletal muscle signaling","volume":"2012","author":"Barbieri","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Signal. Transduct."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"421","article-title":"Alpha-linolenic acid intake prevents endothelial dysfunction in high-fat diet-fed streptozotocin rats and underlying mechanisms","volume":"42","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vasa Eur. J. Vasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-2277-7","article-title":"\u03b1-Linolenic acid but not linolenic acid protects against hypertension: Critical role of SIRT3 and autophagic flux","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-97602004000200013","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in edible wild plants","volume":"37","author":"Simopoulos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2012.05.038","article-title":"Prophylactic effect of alpha-linolenic acid and alpha-eleostearic acid against MeHg induced oxidative stress, DNA damage and structural changes in RBC membrane","volume":"50","author":"Pal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-5918-8-1","article-title":"Acute exercise and oxidative stress: A 30 year history","volume":"8","author":"Bloomer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dyn. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2004.09.027","article-title":"IKKbeta\/NF-kappaB activation causes severe muscle wasting in mice","volume":"119","author":"Cai","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"318981","article-title":"DHA inhibits protein degradation more efficiently than EPA by regulating the PPAR\u03b3\/NF\u03baB pathway in C2C12 myotubes","volume":"2013","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2008.00040.x","article-title":"Update on alpha-linolenic acid","volume":"66","author":"Stark","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2018.03.004","article-title":"Omega-6 fatty acids and inflammation","volume":"132","author":"Innes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1139\/H08-136","article-title":"Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and resistance training in older adults","volume":"34","author":"Cornish","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.08.016","article-title":"Does nutrition play a role in the prevention and management of sarcopenia?","volume":"37","author":"Robinson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-019-01146-1","article-title":"The role of omega-3 in the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia","volume":"31","author":"Dupont","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S261","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02637087","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle Membrane Lipids and Insulin Resistance","volume":"31","author":"Storlien","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imamura, F., Micha, R., Wu, J.H., de Oliveira Otto, M.C., Otite, F.O., Abioye, A.I., and Mozaffarian, D. (2016). Effects of Saturated Fat, Polyunsaturated Fat, Monounsaturated Fat, and Carbohydrate on Glucose-Insulin Homeostasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Feeding Trials. PLoS Med., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002087"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-016-1261-6","article-title":"Circulating linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid and glucose metabolism: The Hoorn Study","volume":"56","author":"Cabout","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-020-00385-2","article-title":"Dietary and plasma blood alpha-linolenic acid as modulators of fat oxidation and predictors of aerobic performance","volume":"17","author":"Lyudinina","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sport. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-4526(08)60064-9","article-title":"Alpha-linolenic acid: Functions and effects on linoleic acid metabolism and eicosanoid-mediated reactions","volume":"35","author":"Kinsella","year":"1991","journal-title":"Adv. Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/123.3.512","article-title":"Dietary lipid profile is a determinant of tissue phospholipid fatty acid composition and rate of weight gain in rats","volume":"123","author":"Pan","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199301283280404","article-title":"The relation between insulin sensitivity and the fatty-acid composition of skeletal-muscle phospholipids","volume":"328","author":"Borkman","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.23.1.83","article-title":"Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Physical Performance Optimization","volume":"23","author":"Mickleborough","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurney, T., and Spendiff, O. (2022). Algae Supplementation for Exercise Performance: Current Perspectives and Future Directions for Spirulina and Chlorella. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.865741"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-021-02492-5","article-title":"The effects of Chlorella supplementation on glycemic control, lipid profile and anthropometric measures on patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"60","author":"Hosseini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jshs.2022.09.002","article-title":"Unlocking a novel determinant of athletic performance: The role of the gut microbiota, short-chain fatty acids, and \u201cbiotics\u201d in exercise","volume":"12","author":"Sales","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Sci."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/9\/2168\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:27:25Z","timestamp":1760124445000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/9\/2168"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,30]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15092168"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15092168","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,30]]}}}