{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T20:20:38Z","timestamp":1760473238914,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]],"date-time":"2024-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1719273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10.54499\/UIDB\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/UIDP\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00147\/2018\/CP1498\/CT0009","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00002\/2021\/CP2788\/CT0004","COFAC\/ILIND\/CBIOS\/2\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10.54499\/UIDB\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/UIDP\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00147\/2018\/CP1498\/CT0009","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00002\/2021\/CP2788\/CT0004","COFAC\/ILIND\/CBIOS\/2\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"COFAC\/ILIND\u2014Cooperativa De Forma\u00e7\u00e3o e Anima\u00e7\u00e3o Cultural CRL\/Instituto Lus\u00f3fono de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","award":["10.54499\/UIDB\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/UIDP\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00147\/2018\/CP1498\/CT0009","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00002\/2021\/CP2788\/CT0004","COFAC\/ILIND\/CBIOS\/2\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10.54499\/UIDB\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/UIDP\/04567\/2020","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00147\/2018\/CP1498\/CT0009","10.54499\/CEECINST\/00002\/2021\/CP2788\/CT0004","COFAC\/ILIND\/CBIOS\/2\/2021"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The role of nutrition in preventing non-communicable diseases has been widely studied in recent years, with indications that non-animal-based diets might improve body composition and therefore bring multiple health benefits. For all of these reasons, the main purpose was to compare body composition and metabolic status between vegetarian and omnivorous individuals and relate these values with cardiovascular risk. The present analysis included 176 participants (61 vegetarians and 115 omnivores). Body composition was assessed using a dual-energy X\u2013ray absorptiometry, biochemical parameters obtained from capillary blood, and the 10-year cardiovascular risk (10RCVD) calculated by the QRISK3 score. No statistical differences were found between groups regarding body composition. Concerning metabolic markers, vegetarian individuals showed reduced values of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and non\u2013HDL cholesterol (p &lt; 0.05). There were no differences in 10RCVD between groups. In both diets, moderate correlations between groups were found for cardiovascular risk and visceral adipose tissue. Our results suggest that the vegetarian regimen might be associated with better cardiometabolic biomarkers and better cardiovascular health, although controversial with the body composition trends observed. In conclusion, the results suggest that cardiovascular risk appears to be more influenced by body composition, mainly fat tissue, over dietary patterns itself.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16132013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]],"date-time":"2024-06-25T10:10:07Z","timestamp":1719310207000},"page":"2013","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Exploring Vegetarian and Omnivorous Approaches to Cardiovascular Risk and Body Composition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6120-104X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatiana","family":"Fontes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0552-8480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Regina","family":"Menezes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Esgalhado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0198-7671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Monteiro Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6930-4107","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00edntia","family":"Ferreira-P\u00eago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CBIOS\u2014Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2019s Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Av. Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO Regional Office for Europe (2022). WHO European Regional Obesity Report 2022, WHO Regional Office for Europe."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.09.004","article-title":"ESPEN Guidelines on Definitions and Terminology of Clinical Nutrition","volume":"36","author":"Cederholm","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170808","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20170808","article-title":"The Role of Visceral and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Measurements and Their Ratio by Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Subjects with Prediabetes, Diabetes and Healthy Controls from a General Population without Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"91","author":"Storz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.675355","article-title":"Abdominal Visceral and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Compartments: Association with Metabolic Risk Factors in the Framingham Heart Study","volume":"116","author":"Fox","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12962","article-title":"Changes in Predicted Lean Body Mass, Appendicular Skeletal Muscle Mass, and Body Fat Mass and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"13","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1159\/000497124","article-title":"The ABCD of Obesity: An EASO Position Statement on a Diagnostic Term with Clinical and Scientific Implications","volume":"12","author":"Busetto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Facts"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI21047","article-title":"Splanchnic Lipolysis in Human Obesity","volume":"113","author":"Nielsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-2280","article-title":"Abdominal Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue: A Protective Fat Depot?","volume":"32","author":"Porter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hargreaves, S.M., Raposo, A., Saraiva, A., and Zandonadi, R.P. (2021). Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains. IJERPH, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18084067"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fontes, T., Rodrigues, L.M., and Ferreira-P\u00eago, C. (2022). Comparison between Different Groups of Vegetarianism and Its Associations with Body Composition: A Literature Review from 2015 to 2021. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14091853"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9","article-title":"Health benefits and risk associated with adopting a vegetarian diet","volume":"65","author":"Pilis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Natl. Inst. Public Health Natl. Inst. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"e596","article-title":"2019 ACC\/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines","volume":"140","author":"Arnett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaam5324","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam5324","article-title":"Meat Consumption, Health, and the Environment","volume":"361","author":"Godfray","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5790039","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.2023.38.S1.5790039","article-title":"Dietary Pattern, Body Composition, Metabolic Markers, and Skin Physiology","volume":"38","author":"Menezes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2013.14547","article-title":"Vegetarian Diets and Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"174","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2012.07.016","article-title":"Comparison of Plasma Triacylglycerol Levels in Vegetarians and Omnivorous: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.19277\/bbr.18.1.258","article-title":"Body Composition Assessment of Vegetarian-Vegan and Omnivorous Young Women\u2014An Exploratory Study: Body Composition Assessment of Vegetarian-Vegan and Omnivorous Young Women\u2014An Exploratory Study","volume":"18","author":"Lopes","year":"2021","journal-title":"BBR"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y.-M., Chen, W.-L., Kao, T.-W., Wu, L.-W., Yang, H.-F., and Peng, T.-C. (2022). Association Between Ideal Cardiovascular Health and Vegetarian Dietary Patterns Among Community-Dwelling Individuals. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.761982"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"World Medical Association (WMA) (2013). Declaration of Helsinki\u2014Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. J. Am. Coll. Dent., 81, 14\u201318."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica (2015). Nuts 2013|As Novas Unidades Territoriais Para Fins Estat\u00edsticos, Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB","article-title":"International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12-Country Reliability and Validity","volume":"35","author":"Craig","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2006.11.008","article-title":"Intake and Adipose Tissue Composition of Fatty Acids and Risk of Myocardial Infarction in a Male Portuguese Community Sample","volume":"107","author":"Lopes","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9681(72)90027-6","article-title":"Indices of relative weight and obesity","volume":"25","author":"Keys","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009520","article-title":"Epidemiology of Sarcopenia among the Elderly in New Mexico","volume":"147","author":"Baumgartner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-019-0516-8","article-title":"Defining Cutoffs to Diagnose Obesity Using the Relative Fat Mass (RFM): Association with Mortality in NHANES 1999\u20132014","volume":"44","author":"Woolcott","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afy169","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Revised European Consensus on Definition and Diagnosis","volume":"48","author":"Bahat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.08.002","article-title":"GLIM Criteria for the Diagnosis of Malnutrition\u2014A Consensus Report from the Global Clinical Nutrition Community","volume":"38","author":"Cederholm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2024, June 18). Waist Circumference and Waist-Hip Ratio: Report of a WHO Expert Consultation. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/44583\/9789241501491_eng.pdf?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3227","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehab484","article-title":"2021 ESC Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice","volume":"42","author":"Visseren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-018-2171-1","article-title":"The Meaning of Blood Pressure","volume":"22","author":"Magder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2022). Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes\u20142022 Abridged for Primary Care Providers. Clin. Diabetes, 40, 10\u201338.","DOI":"10.2337\/cd22-as01"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias: Lipid Modification to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192644","article-title":"Harmonizing the Metabolic Syndrome: A Joint Interim Statement of the International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American Heart Association; World Heart Federation; International Atherosclerosis Society; and International Association for the Study of Obesity","volume":"120","author":"Alberti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"j2099","article-title":"Development and Validation of QRISK3 Risk Prediction Algorithms to Estimate Future Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"357","author":"Coupland","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2024, June 18). Free Software Foundation GNU Lesser General Public License v3.0\u2014GNU Project. Available online: https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/licenses\/lgpl-3.0-standalone.html."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahleova, H., Dort, S., Holubkov, R., and Barnard, N. (2018). A Plant-Based High-Carbohydrate, Low-Fat Diet in Overweight Individuals in a 16-Week Randomized Clinical Trial: The Role of Carbohydrates. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10091302"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahleova, H., Hlozkova, A., Fleeman, R., Fletcher, K., Holubkov, R., and Barnard, N.D. (2019). Fat Quantity and Quality, as Part of a Low-Fat, Vegan Diet, Are Associated with Changes in Body Composition, Insulin Resistance, and Insulin Secretion. A 16-Week Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11030615"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030088","article-title":"Low-Calorie Vegetarian Versus Mediterranean Diets for Reducing Body Weight and Improving Cardiovascular Risk Profile: CARDIVEG Study (Cardiovascular Prevention With Vegetarian Diet)","volume":"137","author":"Sofi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e011367","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.118.011367","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory Effects of a Vegan Diet Versus the American Heart Association\u2013Recommended Diet in Coronary Artery Disease Trial","volume":"7","author":"Shah","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAHA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2016.3202","article-title":"Effects of Moderate and Vigorous Exercise on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"176","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-015-2067-1","article-title":"The Role of Leucine and Its Metabolites in Protein and Energy Metabolism","volume":"48","author":"Duan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2020.02.037","article-title":"Health Outcomes Associated with Vegetarian Diets: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses","volume":"39","author":"Oussalah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199711203372102","article-title":"Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women","volume":"337","author":"Hu","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200005113421903","article-title":"Beneficial Effects of High Dietary Fiber Intake in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"342","author":"Chandalia","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/78.3.610S","article-title":"Type 2 Diabetes and the Vegetarian Diet","volume":"78","author":"Jenkins","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"136","article-title":"The Task Force on Diabetes, Pre-Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and Developed in Collaboration with the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)","volume":"67","author":"Grant","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Espa\u00f1ola Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yogal, C., Shakya, S., Karmarcharya, B., Koju, R., Stunes, A.K., Mosti, M.P., Gustafsson, M.K., \u00c5svold, B.O., Schei, B., and Syversen, U. (2022). Unni Syversen Diabetes Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors among Women in a Rural District of Nepal Using HbA1c as a Diagnostic Tool: A Population-Based Study. IJERPH, 1.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127011"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.015000","article-title":"Association Between Visceral and Subcutaneous Adipose Depots and Incident Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors","volume":"132","author":"Abraham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029617","article-title":"Cardiovascular and Metabolic Heterogeneity of Obesity: Clinical Challenges and Implications for Management","volume":"137","author":"Neeland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2019.08.026","article-title":"Overall Similarities and a Possible Factor Affecting Plasma Metabolome Profiles Between Venous and Capillary Blood Samples From 20 Healthy Human Males","volume":"108","author":"Saito","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/003655102753611799","article-title":"Can Capillary Whole Blood Glucose and Venous Plasma Glucose Measurements Be Used Interchangeably in Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus?","volume":"62","author":"Stahl","year":"2002","journal-title":"Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2019.01.004","article-title":"Accuracy of Self-Reported Height, Weight, and BMI Over Time in Emerging Adults","volume":"56","author":"Lipsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/13\/2013\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:04:14Z","timestamp":1760108654000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/13\/2013"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16132013"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16132013","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-6643"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,25]]}}}