{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T04:49:23Z","timestamp":1770958163544,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,28]],"date-time":"2018-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1543363200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/AGR\/04033\/2013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/AGR\/04033\/2013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"FEDER\/COMPETE\/POCI \u2013 Operacional Competitiveness and Internationalization Programme","award":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006958"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pathogens"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Fusarium species has diverse ecological functions ranging from saprophytes, endophytes, and animal and plant pathogens. Occasionally, they are isolated from dead and alive insects. However, research on fusaria-insect associations is very limited as fusaria are generalized as opportunistic insect-pathogens. Additionally, their phytopathogenicity raises concerns in their use as commercial biopesticides. Insect biocontrol potential of Fusarium is favored by their excellent soil survivability as saprophytes, and sometimes, insect-pathogenic strains do not exhibit phytopathogenicity. In addition, a small group of fusaria, those belonging to the Fusarium solani species complex, act as insect mutualists assisting in host growth and fecundity. In this review, we summarize mutualism and pathogenicity among fusaria and insects. Furthermore, we assert on Fusarium entomopathogenicity by analyzing previous studies clearly demonstrating their natural insect-pathogenicity in fields, and their presence in soils. We also review the presence and\/or production of a well-known insecticidal metabolite beauvericin by different Fusarium species. Lastly, some proof-of-concept studies are also summarized, which demonstrate the histological as well as immunological changes that a larva undergoes during Fusarium oxysporum pathogenesis. These reports highlight the insecticidal properties of some Fusarium spp., and emphasize the need of robust techniques, which can distinguish phytopathogenic, mutualistic and entomopathogenic fusaria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens7040093","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,28]],"date-time":"2018-11-28T11:43:44Z","timestamp":1543405424000},"page":"93","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Fusarium, an Entomopathogen\u2014A Myth or Reality?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6615-2478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lav","family":"Sharma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CITAB\u2014Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real 5000\u2013801, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0963-5785","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guilhermina","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CITAB\u2014Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real 5000\u2013801, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Hatmi, A.M.S., Meis, J.F., and de Hoog, G.S. (2016). Fusarium: Molecular diversity and intrinsic drug resistance. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005464"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2012.12.004","article-title":"Phylogenetic analyses of rpb1 and rpb2 support a middle cretaceous origin for a clade comprising all agriculturally and medically important fusaria","volume":"52","author":"Rooney","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1364-3703.2011.00783.x","article-title":"The top 10 fungal pathogens in molecular plant pathology","volume":"13","author":"Dean","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.3.1760-1766.2004","article-title":"Fusarium oxysporum as a multihost model for the genetic dissection of fungal virulence in plants and mammals","volume":"72","author":"Ortoneda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.7.4.479","article-title":"Taxonomy, biology, and clinical aspects of Fusarium species","volume":"7","author":"Nelson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00014-07","article-title":"Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients","volume":"20","author":"Nucci","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2011.08.004","article-title":"Galleria mellonella as model host for the trans-kingdom pathogen Fusarium oxysporum","volume":"48","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1094\/MPMI-05-11-0119","article-title":"Characterization of the gene encoding pisatin demethylase (fopda1) in Fusarium oxysporum","volume":"24","author":"Coleman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Microbe Interact."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Wollenweber, H.W., and Reinking, O.A. (1935). Die Fusarien, Ihre Beschreibung, Schadwirkung und Bek\u00e4mpfung, Verlag Paul Parey. Available online: https:\/\/catalog.hathitrust.org\/Record\/001998002."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1139\/b59-021","article-title":"The occurrence of fusarium species in canada: Vi. Taxonomy and geographic distribution of Fusarium species on plants, insects, and fungi","volume":"37","author":"Gordon","year":"1959","journal-title":"Can. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"3","article-title":"Observation on the pathogenic microorganism of main rice insect pests","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"1984","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"120","article-title":"Fusarium species on some insects from china","volume":"10","year":"1991","journal-title":"Acta Mycol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00436991","article-title":"Entomogenous Fusarium species","volume":"84","author":"Roberts","year":"1983","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Moss, M.O., and Smith, J.E. (1984). Fusarium as an insect pathogen. The applied mycology of Fusarium, Cambridge University Press. Available online: https:\/\/www.nhbs.com\/the-applied-mycology-of-fusarium-book."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.3852\/11-179","article-title":"Phylogenetic diversity of insecticolous fusaria inferred from multilocus DNA sequence data and their molecular identification via Fusarium-ID and Fusarium MLST","volume":"104","author":"Humber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2014.10.014","article-title":"Discordant phylogenies suggest repeated host shifts in the Fusarium\u2013Euwallacea ambrosia beetle mutualism","volume":"82","author":"Sink","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2013.04.004","article-title":"An inordinate fondness for Fusarium: Phylogenetic diversity of fusaria cultivated by ambrosia beetles in the genus Euwallacea on avocado and other plant hosts","volume":"56","author":"Kasson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1094\/PDIS-07-16-1046-RE","article-title":"PCR multiplexes discriminate Fusarium symbionts of invasive Euwallacea ambrosia beetles that inflict damage on numerous tree species throughout the United States","volume":"101","author":"Short","year":"2016","journal-title":"Plant Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scully, E.D., Hoover, K., Carlson, J., Tien, M., and Geib, S.M. (2012). Proteomic analysis of Fusarium solani isolated from the asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032990"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lacey, L.A., and Kaya, H.K. (2007). Guidelines for evaluating effects of entomopathogens on non-target organisms. Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology: Application and Evaluation of Pathogens for Control of Insects and Other Invertebrate Pests, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-5933-9"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03356230","article-title":"Pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi-potential candidates to control insect pests on tomato under protected cultivation in Thailand","volume":"114","author":"Panyasiri","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Plant Dis. Prot."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/s10340-015-0689-4","article-title":"Controlling dactylopius opuntiae with Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex and extracts of Ricinus communis and Poincianella pyramidalis","volume":"89","author":"Oliveira","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pest Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0418.1986.tb00912.x","article-title":"The \u2018Galleria bait method\u2019 for detection of entomopathogenic fungi in soil","volume":"102","author":"Zimmermann","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Appl. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3897\/mycokeys.38.26790","article-title":"Entomopathogenic fungi in Portuguese vineyards soils: Suggesting a \u2018Galleria-Tenebrio-bait method\u2019 as bait-insects Galleria and Tenebrio significantly underestimate the respective recoveries of Metarhizium (robertsii) and Beauveria (bassiana)","volume":"38","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"MycoKeys"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, L., Oliveira, I., Raimundo, F., Torres, L., and Marques, G. (2018). Soil chemical properties barely perturb the abundance of entomopathogenic Fusarium oxysporum: A case study using a generalized linear mixed model for microbial pathogen occurrence count data. Pathogens, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens7040089"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023339103522","article-title":"Distribution, occurrence and characterization of entomopathogenic fungi in agricultural soil in the Palestinian area","volume":"156","author":"Jamous","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsoil.2007.12.001","article-title":"Occurrence and diversity of insect-associated fungi in natural soils in China","volume":"39","author":"Sun","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Soil Ecol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules17032367","article-title":"Beauvericin, a bioactive compound produced by fungi: A short review","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-4039(01)88668-8","article-title":"The structure of Beauvericin, a new depsipeptide antibiotic toxic to Artemia salina","volume":"10","author":"Hamill","year":"1969","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Gong, X., Li, P., Lai, D., and Zhou, L. (2018). Structural diversity and biological activities of cyclic depsipeptides from fungi. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23010169"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00462223","article-title":"Isolation of beauvericin as an insect toxin from Fusarium semitectum and Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans","volume":"115","author":"Gupta","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3084","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.8.3084-3088.1998","article-title":"Beauvericin production by Fusarium species","volume":"64","author":"Logrieco","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins5030537","article-title":"Sequence divergence of the enniatin synthase gene in relation to production of beauvericin and enniatins in Fusarium species","volume":"5","author":"Stepien","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/10408390601062021","article-title":"Emerging Fusarium-mycotoxins fusaproliferin, beauvericin, enniatins, and moniliformin: A review","volume":"48","author":"Jestoi","year":"2008","journal-title":"CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00304","article-title":"A review of the mycotoxin Enniatin B","volume":"5","author":"Prosperini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00443075","article-title":"The insecticidal activity of Beauvericin and the Enniatin complex","volume":"70","author":"Grove","year":"1980","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01018770","article-title":"Enniatins from Fusarium avenaceum isolated from balsam fir foliage and their toxicity to spruce budworm larvae, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)","volume":"14","author":"Strongman","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Chem. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1570-7458.1992.tb00636.x","article-title":"Toxicity of mycotoxins of Fusarium sambucinum for feeding in Galleria mellonella","volume":"62","author":"Logrieco","year":"1992","journal-title":"Entomol. Exp. Appl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.07.015","article-title":"Mycotoxin production of selected Fusarium species at different culture conditions","volume":"143","author":"Kokkonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030410001713906","article-title":"Presence and concentrations of the Fusarium-related mycotoxins beauvericin, enniatins and moniliformin in Finnish grain samples","volume":"21","author":"Jestoi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1080\/03235400600881547","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo mycotoxin production of Fusarium species isolated from Finnish grains","volume":"41","author":"Jestoi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1603\/022.038.0211","article-title":"Mycoses of wheat stem sawfly (Hymenoptera: Cephidae) larvae by Fusarium spp. isolates","volume":"38","author":"Sun","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s13355-011-0032-3","article-title":"Pathogenicity of microorganisms isolated from the oak platypodid, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera: Platypodidae)","volume":"46","author":"Qi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Entomol. Zool."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.3923\/je.2012.319.331","article-title":"Biodiversity and pathogenicity potential of mycoflora associated with Brahmina coriacea in potato fields of north-western Indian hills","volume":"9","author":"Sharma","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1023\/B:MYCO.0000038424.01369.c8","article-title":"Entomopathogenic fungi from \u2018El Eden\u2019 Ecological Reserve, Quintana Roo, Mexico","volume":"158","author":"Anaya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1080\/09583157.2018.1428733","article-title":"Insect-associated fungi from naturally mycosed vine mealybug Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)","volume":"28","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biocontrol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s10340-014-0624-0","article-title":"Natural occurrence of Fusarium proliferatum on chestnut in Italy and its potential entomopathogenicity against the Asian chestnut gall wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus","volume":"88","author":"Tosi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pest Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2007.05.003","article-title":"Discovery of Fusarium solani as a naturally occurring pathogen of sugarbeet root maggot (Diptera: Ulidiidae) pupae: Prevalence and baseline susceptibility","volume":"97","author":"Majumdar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/09583150701790619","article-title":"Natural occurrence of Gibberella fujikuroi and its potential for control of the woolly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera (Homoptera: Aphididae) in Indian sugarcane plantations","volume":"18","author":"Mehetre","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biocontrol. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1673\/031.011.7001","article-title":"First record of Fusarium verticillioides as an entomopathogenic fungus of grasshoppers","volume":"11","author":"Pelizza","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Insect Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-009-3031-2","article-title":"Optimization of a liquid medium for beauvericin production in Fusarium redolens dzf2 mycelial culture","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5195","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.10.5195-5197.2002","article-title":"Production of beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, and fumonisins b(1), b(2), and b(3) by fifteen ex-type strains of Fusarium species","volume":"68","author":"Fotso","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiemann, P., Sieber, C.M.K., von Bargen, K.W., Studt, L., Niehaus, E.-M., Espino, J.J., Hu\u00df, K., Michielse, C.B., Albermann, S., and Wagner, D. (2013). Deciphering the cryptic genome: Genome-wide analyses of the rice pathogen Fusarium fujikuroi reveal complex regulation of secondary metabolism and novel metabolites. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003475"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2003.12.005","article-title":"Diversity in metabolite production by Fusarium langsethiae, Fusarium poae, and Fusarium sporotrichioides","volume":"95","author":"Thrane","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1080\/02652039509374348","article-title":"Beauvericin and fumonisin b1 in preharvest Fusarium moniliforme maize ear rot in sardinia","volume":"12","author":"Bottalico","year":"1995","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5111","DOI":"10.1021\/jf9903713","article-title":"Production of the mycotoxins fusaproliferin and beauvericin by south african isolates in the Fusarium section liseola","volume":"47","author":"Shephard","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liuzzi, V.C., Mirabelli, V., Cimmarusti, M.T., Haidukowski, M., Leslie, J.F., Logrieco, A.F., Caliandro, R., Fanelli, F., and Mul\u00e8, G. (2017). Enniatin and beauvericin biosynthesis in Fusarium species: Production profiles and structural determinant prediction. Toxins, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9020045"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.4.2254-2262.2004","article-title":"Species diversity of and toxin production by Gibberella fujikuroi species complex strains isolated from native prairie grasses in Kansas","volume":"70","author":"Leslie","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz-G\u00f3mez, A., Corredor, M., Ben\u00edtez-P\u00e1ez, A., and Pel\u00e1ez, C. (2014). Development of quantitative proteomics using itraq based on the immunological response of Galleria mellonella larvae challenged with Fusarium oxysporum microconidia. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0112179"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1111\/mpp.12446","article-title":"Three Fusarium oxysporum mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) have distinct and complementary roles in stress adaptation and cross-kingdom pathogenicity","volume":"18","author":"Segorbe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Pathol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2007.10.009","article-title":"The discovery and analysis of a diverged family of novel antifungal moricin-like peptides in the wax moth Galleria mellonella","volume":"38","author":"Brown","year":"2008","journal-title":"Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2010.06.005","article-title":"A different repertoire of Galleria mellonella antimicrobial peptides in larvae challenged with bacteria and fungi","volume":"34","author":"Mak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-phyto-102313-050143","article-title":"Protein kinases in plant-pathogenic fungi: Conserved regulators of infection","volume":"52","author":"Segorbe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Phytopathol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.b.22672","article-title":"Cdna sequences of two arylphorin subunits of an insect biliprotein: Phylogenetic differences and gene duplications during evolution of hexamerins-implications for hexamer formation","volume":"326","author":"Lieb","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. Part B"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2004.06.001","article-title":"Effects of two hemolymph proteins on humoral defense reactions in the wax moth, Galleria mellonella","volume":"29","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.3390\/insects3041039","article-title":"Nuclear immunolocalization of hexamerins in the fat body of metamorphosing honey bees","volume":"3","author":"Martins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Insects"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-305X(02)00097-6","article-title":"Identification of immunorelevant genes from greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella) by a subtractive hybridization approach","volume":"27","author":"Seitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1002\/psc.967","article-title":"Mapping the peptide and protein immune response in the larvae of the fleshfly Sarcophaga bullata","volume":"14","author":"Ciencialova","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pept. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25243","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M110.134940","article-title":"An insect multiligand recognition protein functions as an opsonin for the phagocytosis of microorganisms","volume":"285","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1910(95)00084-4","article-title":"In search of a function for hemolin, a hemolymph protein from the immunoglobulin superfamily","volume":"42","author":"Zhao","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Insect Physiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1006\/cimm.1996.0089","article-title":"Regulation of the insect immune response: The effect of hemolin on cellular immune mechanisms","volume":"169","author":"Bettencourt","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cell Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0965-1748(02)00091-7","article-title":"Pattern recognition proteins in Manduca sexta plasma","volume":"32","author":"Yu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.2174\/092986607781483688","article-title":"The lysozyme from insect (Manduca sexta) is a cold-adapted enzyme","volume":"14","author":"Kanost","year":"2007","journal-title":"Protein Pept. Lett."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinsphys.2006.06.002","article-title":"A role for lysozyme in melanization of sephadex beads in Anopheles gambiae","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Insect Physiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.064592","article-title":"Drosophila cellular immunity: A story of migration and adhesion","volume":"124","author":"Fauvarque","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"603","article-title":"Host range of the entomogenous fungus Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht and its safety to three crop plants","volume":"48","author":"Kuruvilla","year":"1979","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"281","article-title":"R\u00f4le des fusari\u00e9es entomophytes comme destructeurs d\u2019insectes","volume":"79","author":"Morquer","year":"1944","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"640","article-title":"Fungi associated with larvae of Sitona spp.","volume":"51","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"1961","journal-title":"Phytopathology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2001.02307.x","article-title":"A MAP Kinase of the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum is essential for root penetration and pathogenesis","volume":"39","author":"Roncero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fgb.2004.10.001","article-title":"Fusarium oxysporum g-protein \u03b2 subunit fgb1 regulates hyphal growth, development, and virulence through multiple signalling pathways","volume":"42","author":"Roncero","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fungal Genet. Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1094\/MPMI-18-1140","article-title":"Fusarium oxysporum gas1 encodes a putative \u03b2-1,3-glucanosyltransferase required for virulence on tomato plants","volume":"18","author":"Caracuel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Microbe Interact."}],"container-title":["Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/7\/4\/93\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:33:10Z","timestamp":1760196790000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-0817\/7\/4\/93"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,28]]},"references-count":81,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["pathogens7040093"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pathogens7040093","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-0817"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-0817","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,28]]}}}